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There are two general ways in which the term "market" is used in economics. First, a market is thought of as a formal or informal organization of buyers and sellers who conduct trades in particular commodities or services. The market may be located at a geographical meeting place, such as your friendly neighborhood bookstore or shopping center (a retail market). A market may be organized over wide areas connected through phones or computer terminals. Although the trading room of the New York Stock Exchange is located in New York City, buyers and sellers who actively participate in this market may conduct their trades from distant locations. This description is the institutional way of looking at a market. The second meaning of the word "market" is used in formal economic models. Here the equations that explain the demand and supply of a commodity such as money are sometimes grouped together. The reasons for supplying and holding money are thought to be specific enough to warrant separate equations. This is an abstract way to think of the money market. New financial assets are traded in primary markets. Financial assets that are resold are waded in secondary markets. Firms that specialize in trading either new or reissued financial assets are called primary secondary dealers, respectively. A financial market may be thought of as ordinary market in which traders may buy or sell particular financial commodities.
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Reserve Banks have expressed an interest in using non-employee experts or consultants on bank supervision matters for a number of reasons. A Reserve Bank may seek to engage retired examiners to address fluctuating resource demands, for example, in the event of a rapid but temporary need for examiners experienced in loan underwriting and credit review. An external expert may be used to provide supplemental training, for example, to expose examiners to new analytical techniques, or to provide on-the-job training to examiners who have not experienced an economic downturn, problem loans, or problem banks. While it is important to maintain adequate resources and expertise on an ongoing basis, a Reserve Bank may decide in a particular situation that using a consultant is a more cost effective or efficient approach to meeting a specialized skill need. For example, a consultant may be engaged for a one-time assignment that does not justify a full-time expert on staff, particularly if a System expert is not available. Similarly, an external expert with industry-specific knowledge may be retained to evaluate a business activity that is nontraditional to banking, such as brokerage services or insurance. An external consultant must work with some System experts.
Foreign exchange markets are electronic communication systems that (56) major financial centers throughout the world. Exchange rates are determined (57) supply and demand relationships, relative interest rate levels, relative (58) of inflation, political risk, and economic risk. Alternatives (59) affecting settlement of purchase and sales claims were explored (60) with the instruments available to exporters and importers for financing their international activities.
In the simplest form of international trade, the open-account basis, banks actually have only a simple transactions role. In the open-account basis, the importer and exporter are well known to each other and probably have established a successful working relationship. The importer orders goods and promptly pays for them when the goods and title thereto are received. Almost as simple is the foreign collection basis, in which a bank is used to transmit collected funds. Before the goods it has bought can be shipped, the importer must place funds with its bank so that the exporter is assured that payment will be made with collected funds. In this instance, the bank is merely an agent and not a lender. In open-account basis the importer and exporter have established a successful working relationship.
Fractional reserve banking is the practice of keeping only a traction of deposits in the form of reserves. Depository institutions (commercial banks, savings and loan associations, mutual savings banks, and credit unions) are able to do this because only a small fraction of their depositors is expected to turn up during any given day or week to withdraw their deposits. The bulk of deposits is invested in financial assets, from which the depository institutions earn most of their income. Those income-earning financial assets range from bills, notes, and bonds issued by private corporations and by the federal, state, and municipal governments to mortgage loans for housing. Each type of financial institution has a different type of portfolio of assets, which reflects their area of special expertise in managing financial assets. To demonstrate how depository institutions create money under the present system of fractional reserve banking, hypothetical example of a commercial bank, Southwest National Bank, will be used. It is assumed that federal regulations require Southwest National Bank to hold a percentage of its deposits in the form of cash reserves. This is the reserve requirement. The reserves may be held in the form of currency and coin on the premises, a form of reserves called vault cash, or they may be held in a deposit at a regional Federal Reserve Bank. Assume that the Southwest National Bank management, taking into account the reserve requirement and the projected amount of withdrawals arid deposits, decides to keep 20 percent of its deposits in rescues. How can we know the management of financial assets
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