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Archaeology has long been an accepted tool for studying prehistoric cultures. Relatively recently the same techniques have been systematically applied to studies of the more immediate past. This has been called "historical archaeology," a term that is used in the United States to refer to any archaeological investigation into North American sites that postdate the arrival of Europeans. Back in the 1930’s and 1940’s, when building restoration was popular, historical archaeology was primarily a tool of architectural reconstruction. The role of archaeologists was to find the foundations of historic buildings and then take a back seat to architects. The mania for reconstruction had largely subsided by the 1950’s and 1960’s. Most people entering historical archaeology during this period came out of university anthropology departments, where they had studied prehistoric cultures. They were, by training, social scientists not historians, and their work tended to reflect this bias. The questions they framed and the techniques they used were designed to help them understand, as scientists, how people behaved. But because they were treading on historical ground for which there was often extensive written documentation and because their own knowledge of these periods was usually limited, their contributions to American history remained circumscribed. Their reports, highly technical and sometimes poorly written, went unread. More recently, professional archaeologists have taken over. These researchers have sought to demonstrate that their work can be a valuable tool not only of science but also of history, providing fresh insights into the daily lives of ordinary people whose existences might not otherwise be so well documented. This newer emphasis on archaeology as social history has shown great promise, and indeed work done in this area has led to a reinterpretation of the United States’ past. In Kingston, New York, for example, evidence has been uncovered that indicates that English goods were being smuggled into that city at a time when the Dutch supposedly controlled trading in the area. And in Sacramento an excavation at the site of a fashionable nineteenth-century hotel revealed that garbage had been stashed in the building’s basement despite sanitation laws to the contrary. According to the passage, when had historical archaeologists been trained as anthropologists
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Researchers at the University of Toronto have taken important steps toward producing a profile of an abusive parent. Prof. Gary Walters and doctoral student Lynn Oldershaw of the Department of Psychology have developed a system to characterize parents who physically abuse their children. This could ultimately allow social service professionals to identify parents in child abuse. Over the last five years, Walters and Oldershaw, in collaboration with Darlene Hall of the West End Creche, have examined over 100 mothers and their three-to-six-year-old children who have been physically abused. In the laboratory, the mother and child spend 30 minutes in structured activities such as playing, eating and cleaning-up. The family interaction is videotaped and later analyzed. The researchers have developed a system, which allows them to record the effectiveness of parenting skills. They are particularly interested in disciplinary strategies because abuse most commonly occurs when the parent wants the child to comply. "It’s a question of trying to determine which type of parent produces which type of child or which type of child elicits which type of parental behavior," explains Oldershaw. As a result of their work, Walters and Oldershaw have identified distinct categories of abusive parents and their children. "Harsh / Intrusive" mothers are excessively harsh and constantly badger their child to behave. Despite the fact that these mothers humiliate and disapprove of their child, there are times when they hug, kiss or speak to them warmly. This type of mothering produces an aggressive, disobedient child. A "covert / hostile" mother shows no positive feelings towards her child. She makes blatant (明显的) attacks on the child’s self-worth and denies him affection or attention. For his part, the child tries to engage his mother’s attention and win her approval. An "emotionally detached" mother has very little involvement with her child. She appears depressed and uninterested in the child’s activities. The child of this type of mother displays no characteristics that set him apart from other children. In order to put together a parenting profile, the two researchers examine the mother / child interaction and their perception and feelings. Abusive parents are often believed to have inadequate parenting skills and are referred to programs to improve these skills. These programs are particularly appropriate for parents who, themselves, were raised by abusive parents and as a result are ignorant of any other behavior toward her child. One of the goals of the psychologists is to provide information to therapists which will help tailor therapy to the individual needs of the abusive parents. Which of the following is NOT observed by the researchers in their study of abusive parents
《唐律疏议·斗讼律》：“诸诬告人者，各反坐。诸告祖父母、父母者，绞。即嫡、继、慈母杀其父，及所养者杀其本生，并听告。诸部曲、奴婢告主，非谋反、逆、叛者，皆绞。诸投匿名书告人罪者，流二千里。诸被囚禁，不得告举他事。其为狱官酷己者，听之。即年八十以上，十岁以下及笃疾者，听告谋反、逆、叛、子孙不孝及同居之内为人侵犯者，余并不得告。诸以赦前事相告言者，以其罪罪之。” 请运用中国法制史的知识和理论，分析上述文字并回答下列问题： 请根据该段文字归纳唐朝对告诉的限制情形。
与司法相比，执法有哪些特征
Steve Robinson went for a walk yesterday morning with tens of millions of people watching. A walk in space. What made his sojourn so different from those of the hundreds of other astronauts who have floated around shuttles for more than 20 years is that the very future of the nation’s manned space program may rest on his success. In the wake of the Columbia disaster 30 months ago, and amid questions about NASA’s commitment to a safety-first culture, Robinson tested what accounts to the repair kits to help astronauts survive damage from debris during lift-off or in orbit. Apparently, the repairs went well. How well, however, and whether the spacecraft sustained damage from foam insulation as it rose from Kennedy Space Center, won’t be known until Discovery completes its super-heated descent through the atmosphere and touches down. What is known now is that NASA allowed Discovery to fly despite internal questions about whether NASA had done enough to address safety issues raised inside and outside the agency. That’s disquieting. Space flight is dangerous; it can never be as safe as, say, a flight in a jetliner. But every investigation following both the Challenger and Columbia tragedies cited a culture that did not put safety first. Yes, NASA has made progress. Robinson’s repair walk is evidence of that. For now, let’s hope for the best for the seven brave astronauts as, amazingly, they do their jobs. According to the passage, the significance of the successful space walk done by Steve Robison is
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