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From the 1900’s through the 1950’s waitresses in the United States developed a form of unionism based on the unions’ defining the skills that their occupation included and enforcing standards for the performance of those skills. This "occupational unionism" differed substantially from the "worksite unionism" prevalent among factory. workers. Rather than unionizing the workforces of particular employers, waitress locals sought to control their occupation throughout a city. Occupational unionism operated through union hiring halls, which provided free placement services to employers who agreed to hire their personnel only through the union. Hiring halls offered union waitresses collective employment security, not individual job security—a basic protection offered by worksite unions. That is, when a waitress lost her job, the local did not intervene with her employer but placed her elsewhere; and when jobs were scarce, the work hours available were distributed fairly among all members rather than being assigned according to seniority. The author of the passage mentions "particular employers" primarily in order to
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In this section you will hear everything ONCE ONLY. Listen carefully and then answer the questions that follow. Mark the correct answer to each question on ANSWER SHEET TWO. Questions 1 to 5 are based on an interview. At the end of the interview you will be given 10 seconds to answer each of the following .five questions. Now listen to the interview. Which of the following is NOT Dave’s advice
Last month the National Health Service (NHS) in England calculated its carbon footprint as the equivalent of 21m tonnes of carbon dioxide a year — just short of the amount emitted by the Drax coal-fired power station in Yorkshire, Western Europe’s largest. Unlike the power station’s emissions, though, those of the health service have been increasing: they have grown by half since 1990. Other countries fare no better. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association estimates that America’s health-care industry accounts for 8% of the country’s greenhouse gas emissions. In Germany, a study by the Viamedica Foundation showed that a hospital’s energy expenditure per bed was roughly the same as that of three newly built homes. The past few years have seen efforts to make things greener. The King Edward Memorial hospital in Mumbai, for example, was recently remodelled with solar heaters and rainwater-collection units. Many hospitals arc switching from standard light-bulbs to compact fluorescent or LED lights. The Dell Children’s Medical Center in Austin, Texas, was the first hospital to be certified "platinum" under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards of the United States’ Green Building Council — the highest designation there is. Moves towards energy efficiency arc essential to reduce carbon emissions, but they are not enough. "When hospitals start looking at their energy usage, it is only the first step in a long way." says An ia Leetz, executive director of Health Care Without Harm, an organisation whose purpose is to implement more environmentally sustainable health care round the world. The NHS study suggests that energy expenditure is responsible for only a quarter of hospital carbon emissions. Procurement — primarily that of medical equipment and pharmaceuticals — is the main culprit, swallowing 60%. Simply disposing of unused pharmaceuticals contributes over 22, 000 tonnes of CO2, every year. There are also protocols and procedures which add a lot of carbon without providing a great deal of health. Before the risks of mad-cow disease were understood, the NHS routinely reused its nailclippers Now the one-in-10m estimated risk of transmitting Crcutzfeldt-Jaeob disease, the human equivalent of mad-cow, has made it common to use clippers only once. A low risk creates a mountain of waste. One way to avoid such problems is for people to stay at home and, when necessary, be visited by a podiatrist who uses the patient’s own clippers. And this illustrates one of the wisest tactics hospitals and clinics can make use of as they try to become greener, keeping people out and looking after them at home instead. Fewer admissions, lower emissions. Easier said than done. David Pencheon, the director of the NHS’s Sustainable Development Unit, says shifting health care out of hospitals means reworking the system from the inside out. But it is possible. "We have the technology to deliver services in more accurate ways, " says Dr. Pencheon. Smaller and more efficient machines, for example, make it easier for treatments like dialysis and chemotherapy to take place in the home. Consultations, too. need not necessarily involve travel. Kidney-transplant patients at the University Hospital of Coventry and Warwickshire are given the option to have three out of four of their quarterly post-operative "’visits" conducted by phone. That is a couple of tonnes of CO2 saved right there. Like the first wave of environmental responsibility, which focused on energy efficiency and design, moves to decentralise health care in this way can often reduce environmental impacts without sacrificing quality and safety. Much of this greenery could also save money. The Confederation of British Industry, a business lobby group, estimates that 15 billion pounds could be saved by treating chronic diseases at home. Which of the following statements about carbon emissions is CORRECT
Flatfish, such as the flounder, are among the few vertebrates that lack approximate bilateral symmetry (symmetry in which structures to the left and fight of the body’s midline are mirror images). Most striking among the many asymmetries evident in an adult flatfish is eye placement: before maturity one eye migrates, so that in an adult flatfish both eyes are on the same side of the head. While in most species with asymmetries virtually all adults share the same asymmetry, members of the starry flounder species can be either left-eyed (both eyes on the left side of head) or right-eyed. In the waters between the United States and Japan, the starry flounder populations vary from about 50 percent left-eyed off the United States West Coast, through about 70 percent left-eyed halfway between the United States and Japan, to nearly 100 percent left-eyed off the Japanese coast. Biologists call this kind of gradual variation over a certain geographic range a "cline" and interpret clines as strong indications that the variation is adaptive, a response to environmental differences. For the starry flounder this interpretation implies that a geometric difference (between fish that are mirror images of one another) is adaptive, that left-eyedness in the Japanese starry flounder has been selected for, which provokes a perplexing questions: what is the selective advantage in having both eyes on one side rather than on the other The ease with which a fish can reverse the effect of the sidedness of its eye asymmetry simply by turning around has caused biologists to study internal anatomy, especially the optic nerves, for the answer. In all flatfish the optic nerves cross, so that the right optic nerve is joined to the brain’s left side and vice versa. This crossing introduces an asymmetry, as one optic nerve must cross above or below the other. G.H.Parker reasoned that if, for example, a flatfish’s left eye migrated when the fight optic nerve was on top, there would be a twisting of nerves, which might be mechanically disadvantageous. For starry flounders, then, the left-eyed variety would be selected against, since in a starry flounder the left optic nerve is uppermost. The problem with the above explanation is that the Japanese starry flounder population is almost exclusively left-eyed, an natural selection never promotes a purely less advantageous variation. As other explanations proved equally untenable, biologists concluded that there is no important adaptive difference between left-eyedness and right-eyedness, and that the two characteristics are genetically associated with some other adaptively significant characteristic. This situation is one commonly encountered by evolutionary biologists, who must often decide whether a characteristic is adaptive or selectively neutral. As for the left-eyed and right-eyed fflatfishlatfish, their difference, however striking, appears to be an evolutionary red herring. Select a sentence from the passage that best expresses the author’s conclusion about the meaning of the difference between left-eyed and right-eyed flatfish.
Paule Marshall’s Brown Girl, Brownstones (1959) was a landmark in the depiction of female characters in Black American literature. Marshall avoided the oppressed and tragic heroine in conflict with White society that had been typical of the protest novels of the early twentieth century. Like her immediate predecessors, Zora Neale Hurston and Gwendolyn Brooks, she focused her novel on an ordinary Black woman’s search for identity within the context of a Black community. But Marshall extended the analysis of Black female characters begun by Hurston and Brooks by depicting her heroine’s development in terms of the relationship between her Barbadian American parents, and by exploring how male and female roles were defined by their immigrant culture, which in turn was influenced by the materialism of White America. By placing characters within a wider cultural context, Marshall attacked racial and sexual stereotypes and paved the way for explorations of race, class, and gender in the novels of the 1970’s. The author’s description of the way in which Marshall depicts her heroine’s development is most probably intended to:
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