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It is hard to conceive of a language without nouns or verbs. But that is just what Riau Indonesian is, a researcher says at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, in Leipzigstates. Dr. Gil has been studying Riau for the past 12 years. Initially, he says, he struggled with the language, despite being fluent in standard Indonesian. However, a breakthrough came when he realized that what he had been thinking of as different parts of speech were, in fact, grammatically the same. For example, the phrase "the chicken is eating" translating into colloquial Riau is "ayam makan". Literally, the phrase means "chicken eat". But the same pair of words also have meanings as diverse as "the chicken is making somebody eat", or "somebody is eating where the chicken is". There are, he says, no modifiers that distinguish the tenses of verbs. Nor are there modifiers for nouns that distinguish the definite from the indefinite. Indeed, there are no features in Riau Indonesian that distinguish nouns from verbs. These categories, he says, are imposed because the languages that Western linguists are familiar with having them.This sort of observation flies in the face of conventional wisdom about what languages is. Most linguists are influenced by the work of Noam Chomsky—in particular, his theory of "deep grammar". According to Dr. Chomsky, people are born with a sort of linguistic template in their brains. This is a set of rules that allows children to learn a language quickly, but also imposes constraints and structure on what is learnt. Evidence in support of this theory includes the tendency of children to make systematic mistakes which indicate a tendency to impose rules on what turn out to be grammatical exceptions (e. g. "I dided it" instead of "I did it"). There is also the ability of the children of migrant workers to invent new languages known as creoles out of the grammatically incoherent pidgin spoken by their parents. Exactly what the deep grammar consists of is still not clear, but a basic distinction between nouns and verbs would probably be one of its minimum requirements.Dr. Gil contends, however, that there is a risk of unconscious bias leading to the conclusion that a particular sort of grammar exists in an unfamiliar language. That is because it is easier for linguists to discover extra features in foreign languages, for example, tones that change the meaning of words, which are common in Indonesian but do not exist in European languages than to realize that elements which are taken for granted in a linguist’s native language may be absent from another. Despite the best intentions, he says, there is a tendency to fit languages into a mould. And since most linguists are Westerners, that mould is usually an Indo-European language from the West.It needs not, however, be a modern language. Dr. Gil’s point about bias is well illustrated by the history of the study of the world’s most widely spoken tongue. Many of the people who developed modern linguistics had had an education in Latin and Greek. As a consequence, English was often described until well into the 20 century as having six different noun cases, because Latin has six. Only relatively recently did grammarians begin a debate over noun cases in English. Some now contend that it does not have noun cases at all; others argue that it has two while still others maintain that there are three or four cases.The difficulty is compounded if a linguist is not fluent in the language he is studying. The process of linguistic fieldwork is a painstaking one, fraught with pitfalls. Its mainstay is the use of "informants" who tell linguists, in interviews and on paper, about their language. Unfortunately, these informants tend to be better-educated than their fellows and are often fluent in more than one language. It can be inferred from Paragraph 3 that().
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案例三[背景资料]某工程项目通过公开招标的方式确定了三个不同性质的施工单位承担该项工程的全部施工任务，建设单位分别与A公司签订了土建施工合同；与B公司签订了设备安装合同；与 C公司签订了电梯安装合同。三个合同协议中都对甲方提出了一个相同的条款，即建设单位应协调现场其他施工单位，为三公司创造可利用条件。合同执行过程中，发生如下事件。事件1：A公司在签订合同后因自身资金周转困难，随后和承包商公司签定了分包合同，在分包合同中约定承包商丙按照建设单位(业主)与承包商乙约定的合同金额的10%向承包商乙支付管理费，一切责任由承包商丙承担。事件2：由于A公司在现场施工时拖延5天，造成B公司的开工时间相应推迟了5天，B公司向A公司提出了索赔。事件3：顶层结构楼板吊装后，A公司立刻拆除塔吊，改用卷扬机运材料作屋面及装饰，C公司原计划由甲方协调使用塔吊将电梯设备吊上9层楼顶的设想落空后，提出用A公司的卷扬机运送，A公司提出卷扬机吨位不尽，不能运送。最后，C公司只好为机房设备的吊装重新设计方案。C公司就新方案的实施引起的费用增加和工期延误向建设单位提出索赔。[问题] 事件1中A公司的做法是否符合国家有关法律规定？其行为属于什么行为？
Iran is reacting to the increasing pain of economic sanctions. Supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei is urging greater efficiency and motivation, and Iran’s vice president is threatening to stop doing business in dollars and euros. As new U.S. and U.N. economic sanctions step up the pressure on Iran’s economy, Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei is urging his countrymen to change their habits. Fars News Agency reports that Ayatollah wants Iranians to work harder，use more initiative and be more creative. Top Iranian vice president Mohammad Reza Rahimi also told journalists Friday that the government was planning to stop selling oil in euros and dollars. Iran has threatened to stop selling oil in dollars, before, but with limited success. It was the first time that Tehran has threatened to stop using the Euro.The European Union ambassadors, meeting in Brussels, agreed Thursday to a new package of sanctions targeting Iran’s energy sector. The sanctions must be approved Monday at a meeting of EU foreign ministers. The U.N. and U.S. imposed fresh sanctions on Iran, last month, to force it to stop enriching uranium for its controversial nuclear program. Why is the Iran’s Supreme Leader urging his countrymen to work harder().
To begin with, we are witnessing a (32) explosion of "solos" — people who live (33) , outside a family altogether. Between 1970 and 1978, the number of persons aged fourteen (34) thirty-four who lived alone nearly tripled in the United State — (35) from 1.5 million to 4.3 million. Today, (36) fifth of all households in the United States consists (37) a living solo. (38) are all these people losers or loners, forced into the solo life. Many deliberately choose it, at least for a time. Says a legislative aide to a Seattle councilwoman, "I (39) consider marriage if the right person came (40) , but I would not give up my career (41) it." Looking at an older slice of the population, we find a large number of formerly married people, living on their (42) and, in many eases, decidedly liking it. The growth of such groups (43) created a flourishing "singles" culture and a much publicized proliferation of bars, travel tours, and (44) services or products de- signed for the independent individual. Simultaneously, the real estate industry has come (45) with "singles only" condominia, and has begun to respond to a (46) for smaller apartments and suburban homes with fewer bedrooms. We are now experiencing a growth (47) the number of people living together (48) bothering about legal formalities. This group has more (49) doubled in the past decade. The practice has become so common that the US Department of Housing and Urban Development has overthrown tradition and (50) its rules to permit such couples to occupy public housing. The courts are wrestling (51) the legal and property complications that spring up when such couples "divorce".
Imagine you found out that ideas invented by a computer were rated higher by independent experts than ideas created by a group of humans asked to perform the same task. Would you praise the designer of the "creative computer" for a great achievement or would you question why human talent -- usually so potent in coping with complex cognitive challenges -- created such poor ideas Or maybe you would question your view of the notion of creativity. In fact, such a scenario was played out when we used a simple computerized routine to generate ideas and compared them as superior to human ideas when they performed the same taskCreativity is considered the ultimate human activity, a highly complex process, difficult to formalize and to control. Although there is a general agreement regarding the distinctive nature of the creative product( idea, painting, poem, and so on). there is a controversy over the nature of the creative process. Some researchers hold that the creative thinking process is qualitatively different from "ordinary" day-to-day thinking, and involves a leap that cannot be formulated, analyzed, or reconstructed --the creative spark. Others adopt a reductionism view that creative products and the outcome of ordinary thinking, only quantitatively different from everyday thinking.Because creative ideas are different from those that normally arise, people often believe that such ideas require conditions dramatically different from the usual. The notion goes that, in order to overcome mental barriers and reach creative idem, total freedom is necessary -- no directional guidance, constraints, criticism, of thinking within bounded scope. Then ideas can be drawn and contemplated from an infinite space during the creativity process. This view prompted the emergence of various idea-generating methods: brainstorming, synectics, lateral thinking, random stimulation, and so on, all of which consist of withholding judgement and relying on analogies from other members in the group of on randomly selected analogies. This family of methods relies on the assumption that enhancing randomness, breaking roles and paradigms, and generating anarchy of thought increase the probability of creative idea emergence.Do these methods work A number of researchers indicate that they do not. Ideas suggested by individuals working a- lone are superior to ideas suggested in brainstorming sessions and the performance of problem solvers instructed to "break the rules, get out of the square, and change paradigms" was not better than that of individuals who were not given any instruction at all.The failure of these methods to improve creative outcomes has been explained by the unstructured nature of the task. Reitman observed that many problems that lack a structuring framework are ill-defined in that the representations of one or more of the basic components -- the initial state, the operators and constraints, and the goal -- are seriously incomplete, and the search space is exceedingly large. Indeed, many ill-defined problems seem difficult, not because we are swamped by the enormous number of alternative possibilities, but because we have trouble thinking even of one idea worth pursuing. According to this passage, ideas invented by a computer ().
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