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(62) While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians, modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past. Caught in the web of its own time and place, each generation of historians determines anew what is significant for it in the past. In this search the evidence found is always incomplete and scattered; it is also frequently partial or partisan. The irony of the historian’s craft is that its practitioners always know that their efforts are but contributions to an unending process.(63) Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves. While history once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world. (64) During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies de- signed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study. Methodology is a term that remains inherently ambiguous in the historical profession. (65) There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry. Historians, especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused of tunnel method, frequently fall victim to the techniques fallacy, Also common in the natural sciences, the techniques fallacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation. (66) It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques. Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves.
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Passage OneQuestions 26 to 29 are based on the passage you have just heard.
There are more than 2,700 languages in the world. In addition, there are more than 7,000 dialects. A dialect is a regional variety of a language that has a different pronunciation, vocabulary, or meaning.The language in which a government conducts business is the official language of that country.There are one billion people speaking English. That’ s 20 percent of the world’ s population.Four hundred million people speak English as their first language. For the other 600 million it’ s either a second language or a foreign language.There are more than 500,000 words in the Oxford Dictionary. 80% of all English vocabulary comes from other language.Eighty percent of all information in the world’ s computers is in English.More than 1,000 different languages are spoken on the continent of Africa.When the American spaceship voyage began its journey in 1977, it carries, a gold disc. On the disc, there were messages in 55 languages. Before all of them, there was message from the Secretary General of the United Nations in English. Number of languages in the world (approx) is ().
Passage OneQuestions 26 to 29 are based on the passage you have just heard.
It is said that the public and Congressional concern about deceptive packaging rumpus started because Senator Hart discovered that the boxes of cereals consumed by him, Mrs. Hart, and their children were becoming higher and narrower, with a decline of net weight from 12 to 10.5 ounces, without any reduction in price. There were still twelve biscuits, but they had been reduced in size. Later, the Senator rightly complained of a store-bought pie in a handsomely illustrated box that pictured, in a single slice, almost as many cherries as there were in the whole pie.The manufacturer who increases the unit price of his product by changing his package size to lower the quantity of delivered can, without undue hardship, put his product into boxes, bags, and tins that will contain even 8-ounce, one-pound, two-pound quantities of breakfast foods, cake mixes, etc. A- study of drugstore and supermarket shelves will convince any observer that all possible sizes and shapes of boxes, jars, bottles, and tins are in use at the same time and, as the package journals show, week by week, there is never any hesitation in introducing a new size and shape of box or bottle when it aids in product differentiation. The producers of packaged products argue strongly against changing sizes of packages to contain even weights and volumes, but no one in the trade comments unfavorably on the huge costs incurred by endless changes of package sizes, materials, shapes, art works, and net weights that are used for improving a product’s market position.When a packaging expert explained that he was able to multiply the price of hard sweets by 2.5, from 1 dollar to 2.50 dollars by changing to a fancy jar, or that he had made a 5-ounce bottle look as though it held 8 ounces, he was in effect telling the public that packaging can be a very expensive luxury. It evidently does come high. When an average family pays about 200 dollars a year for bottles, cans, boxes, jars and other containers, most of which can’t be used any more but stuffing the garbage can. What started the public and Congressional concern about deceptive packaging rumpus().
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