DRAMA IN ANCIENT GREECE1 Long before the ancient Greeks could read and write, they learned of their history and culture through epic poetry chanted by bards or singers. The bards chanted stories in standard musical phrases that were accompanied by musical instruments such as the lyre, a general name for any of several stringed instruments favored by the bards. The greatest bard, Homer, was a poet, singer and master of the lyre. According to tradition, Homer was a wandering minstrel who traveled from place to place chanting stories of gods and heroes. Another famous poet, singer, and lyre player was Sappho, who started a school for girls, where she taught the arts of music, poetry, and dance.2 Greek civilization reached a golden age during the fifth century BC, when politics, philosophy, art, architecture, and theater thrived, as they never had before. As the Greeks took new pride in human achievements, they developed ideals of beauty, order, balance, and moderation throughout their culture, particularly in music and drama. Originating in the tradition of the bards, the earliest drama was associated with the worship of the god Dionysus and was an outgrowth of the choral songs and dances performed in the god"s honor. The famous outdoor Theater of Dionysus in Athens illustrated the importance of drama to the Greeks. It was situated on a hillside to take advantage of the natural slope and light, and it could accommodate an audience of 30,000 people. An image of Dionysus was carried in to watch every performance. A chorus of singers, dancers, and musicians, led by a singer who stood on steps above them, performed stories of mythic heroes that educated and entertained the audience while also honoring the god.3 The crucial innovation that turned choral performance into drama is attributed to Thespis, a poet who is said to have originated tragedy. As the chorus sang the story of a hero or god, Thespis would enter the theater as a masked actor. Between songs, he recited verses as a character in the story, and these spoken verses changed what had been a choral monologue into a dialogue between the actor and the chorus. The legacy of Thespis can be seen in the term "thespian," which now describes anything relating to drama.4 Actors of that time wore a large mask made of linen or cork, inside which was a device like a speaking trumpet to amplify the voice. When the actor recited, it was in an exalted monotone, often to the accompaniment of flutes. The chorus enhanced the tragedy with various dances and songs, generally accompanied by the lyre. The actor chanted the lines of the lead character, while the chorus sang the narrative passages. Still, despite the attention the actor received, the chorus and its music continued to dominate dramatic performances with the combined power of singing and dancing.5 Like Thespis, the playwright Aeschylus acted in his own plays, but he added a second masked actor. Now audience attention could be directed to the interplay between the two actors—action and reaction, question and answer, conflict or cooperation—rather than between the actor and chorus. A later playwright, Sophocles, added a third actor. This made possible not only three-way dramatic scenes but also plays with a large cast of characters, since the masks allowed an actor to play more than one part in different scenes. The addition of actors shifted the focus of drama away from the chorus toward the action and dialogue of the characters. The chorus provided narrative links and commentary.6 Playwrights continued to introduce innovations, but essentially they adhered to prescribed conventions. One of these conventions limited the number of scenes in a play to five. The drama always took place in one location and within a short span of time, sometimes a single day. Another convention reflected the society"s sense of balance and order: bloody deeds rarely took place in front of the audience. Therefore, murders, suicides, and other acts of violence occurred offstage. The Greek concept of moderation is reflected in still another convention, in which any character who acted in an excess of passion was usually punished in the story. Look at the four squares, A, B, C, and D, which indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit As drama grew in popularity, and influence, the Greeks developed standard forms and dramatic conventions. A Playwrights continued to introduce innovations, but essentially they adhered to prescribed conventions. One of these conventions limited the number of scenes in a play to five. B The drama always took place in one location and within a short span of time, sometimes a single day. C Another convention reflected the society"s sense of balance and order: bloody deeds rarely took place in front of the audience. Therefore, murders, suicides, and other acts of violence occurred offstage. D The Greek concept of moderation is reflected in still another convention, in which any character who acted in an excess of passion was usually punished in the story.