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The new-technology revolution in American newspapers has brought increased circulations, a wider range of publications and an expansion of newspaper jobs in spite of reduced manning in the composing rooms. Payrolls in the publishing industry more than doubled in a decade from $3.1 billion in 1972 to $6.3 billion in 1981. Capital investment, largely as a result of re-equipment with new technology, doubled from $554m in 1972 to $1.02 billion in 1981. Circulation of weekly newspapers has grown from 21m in 1960 to 49m in 1985. Big city dailies have remained relatively static, with total circulation going from 58m to 63m. Sunday papers, though, have grown more dramatically from 8.6m to 56m. This reflects the trend toward specialisation. Growth has been especially strong in the number and circulation of suburban and small-community newspapers. In 1965 there were only 357 semi-weekly papers; in 1982, 508. There has also been a dramatic rise in newspapers circulating nationwide something that hardly existed in the old days. The Wall Street Journal is producing regional editions that have catapulted it into becoming the nation’s largest-circulation newspaper, a role formerly held by the New York Daily News. In addition, USA Today and the New York Times have used technological advances, particularly satellite-delivery of pages to regional production facilities, to achieve unprecedented growth. A number of daily papers have added Sunday editions -made possible through the new technology in response to demand from advertisers. Total newspaper employment, according to government statistics, rose from 345,000 in 1965 to 443,000 in 1984 and that figure does not fully cover the multitude of local papers. But the International Typographical Union, which formerly had a firm grip on nearly all printing jobs, has shrunk from over 100,000 in 1967 to 40,000 today, of whom about 4,000 are in fact retired members. The prospect is that the union may be reduced to 5,000 members in the near future. According to Jim Cesnik of the 33,000-member journalists’ union, the Newspaper Guild, employment of journalists has grown but not to the same extent as that of sales people pushing advertising and circulation. The guild, however, has few members on the small local papers. The New York Times spent $2m on radio advertising to boost home-delivery of the paper in the first nine months of 1985 -a campaign responding to a fall in the number of streetside news-stands. The general growth in circulations has helped increase advertising revenue among dailies from $15 billion in 1965 to $66 billion in 1982. An interesting development noted by Charles Cole, a consultant to the 1,375-member American Newspaper Publishers Association, is that local newspapers have expanded their news-gathering teams, and some now send people abroad as well as having representatives in many American cities. Other departments in papers have also advanced, according to Cole. For example, mail rooms of many newspapers employ up to 25% more people handling the national advertising inserts that have become common. However, more automatic machinery may well reduce manning here. Which of the following has grown most rapidly in number
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A new variety of sugar cane, bred from crosses of ordinary cultivated strains with a wild type found in Argentina, could become an important source of energy as well as sugar. Two conditions need to be fulfilled to make it worthwhile to cultivate an agricultural crop for energy. The crop must be easy to harvest and process, and it must be high-yielding. On both these counts, sugar cane is ideal: the technology for harvesting and milling has been thoroughly tested over the years, and sugar cane is one of the most productive plants ever recorded. Professor Mike Giamalva and his colleagues at Louisiana State University have now produced a plant that is super-productive. Their new variety grows to 3.6 metres high. On experimental plots, it gives yields of 253 tons per hectare -equal to the highest yield of any plant recorded. But even this record has been exceeded. On good soil, yields may reach 321 tons per hectare. Another advantage of Giamalva’s new strain of sugar cane is its high fibre content. Traditionally, researchers have selected strains that produce large amounts of juice rich in sugar, and low quantities of fibre. The fibre is either discarded, or sometimes burnt as fuel. The new sugar cane gives exceptional quantities of fibre for only modest amounts of juice. When it comes from the mill, the bagasse has about 70 per cent of the heat content of wood, or 30-40 per cent of that of coal. Burning bagasse to provide energy is not a new idea. Many sugar factories throughout the world are now self-sufficient in energy, while some, for example, in Mauritius, Hawaii and South Africa, "export" electricity to the national grid. Mauritius currently gets around 10 per cent of its electricity from sugar factories. However, in Louisiana local farmers are unwilling to grow the cane until they have a guaranteed market. Yet industrialists will not invest in the new fuel until they have a constant supply. And only local factories may be able to exploit cane because, being bulky, it is costly to transport. One way of overcoming this problem would be to dry the fibrous residue and compact it. Work on compacting fibrous residue is now under way in several research centres. Whether compacting will pay its way will depend on the local situation and the cost of alternative energy supplies. A study carried out by Fay Baguant from the University of Mauritius showed that electricity could be produced there from fibrous residue about twice as cheaply as from oil or coalfired stations. The new variety can be grown with ordinary sugar cane or with other crops to provide energy for processing. It can be compressed and burned as a substitute for charcoal. Or it can be incorporated into paper, cardboard and fibreboard. Brazil, with its fleet of cars running almost entirely on alcohol fuel extracted from sugar cane, already has shown that the plant has the potential to alter radically a country’s agricultural sector. What does"bagasse" in line 6, paragraph 4 mean
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One of the greatest economic and social changes of the post-war years has gone largely unnoticed. It is that more and more women are going out to work. Today in the United States, in Japan and in the United Kingdom, almost 40 per cent of the work force is female. 16. ______ Most women now work far longer hours than men -in factory, shop or office as well as in the home as cook, cleaner, child rearer, shopper and home-maker. This "double burden" means that the average woman who goes out to work is now putting in an 80-hour working week -twice as long as most men. So equality depends not only on women sharing in paid employment but also on men sharing in the tasks of the home. At the moment husbands in all industrialised countries contribute very little to domestic work and recent research shows that this contribution does not increase when the wife goes out to work. American researcher Joan Vanek, for example, found that the average father in the United States spends only 12 minutes a day with his children. Overall, women’s unpaid work in the U.S.A. is estimated at about 40 per cent of the Gross Domestic Product. 17. ______ The reasons why women earn less than men go deeper than legislation. And again the main cause is the double burden’ of home responsibilities which means that many women have to take part-time jobs, or less demanding jobs, and that they have less time for training and less opportunity for promotion. As children, girls are educated and conditioned either for no employment at all or for more manial and lower-paid jobs. As workers, they are crowded into industries like textiles, food, clothing, retailing -where they compete with each other for low-paid and insecure jobs which require little skill or training and offer little chance of promotion. A recent survey in Sweden shows that women have a choice of about 25 different occupations whereas a man chooses from over 306 careers. Indeed certain countries, says the OECD, "have come to rely on a supply of female labour which costs little and enjoys little protection". 18. ______ Single parent families are increasing in almost every industrialised country. In Britain at least 600,000 families are now headed by single mothers and the number is growing by 6 per cent a year. The main cause is the rise in divorce rates which have doubled in many countries during the last 15 years. 19. ______ As the ILO notes, pensioners are the poorest social group in the industrialised world. But here too it is the women who are worst off -partly because they tend to live longer than men and partly because inequality during their working lives is reflected in reduced pensions. In the United States, for example, the 8 million women who are over the age of 65 make up by far the poorest group of people in America -with almost half of them living below the official poverty line. 20. ______ The first half of the U.N. Decade for Women has now gone and the vast majority of women in the industrialised countries have seen little or no benefit. Equal-pay legislation in almost all industrialised countries has been one of the big achievements of these five years. The task for the next five years is to achieve equal work which will give substance to equal pay. The biggest barrier is that working women now do two jobs. And overcoming that barrier is as much of a challenge to men as it is to women.A. But even in the work-place itself, women’s wages are everywhere lower than men’s. In the U.K., women are paid an average of 25 per cent less. In the U.S.A., they are paid 40 per cent less. And this is despite equal pay legislation in most industrialised countries.B. The result of this inequality is that women have more than their fair share of poverty. And particularly hard-hit are the families dependent on a woman’s earnings.C. In theory this should mean that women are becoming better-off, liberated, equal. But in practice it is a different story.D. For women at work, the final irony is that the trade unions -which have done so much to improve the pay, conditions and benefits of work forces in the industrialised world -are also dominated by men. In America’s garment industry, 80 per cent of the union members are women but 21 of the 22-member board of the union are men. In New Zealand only 15 of the country’s 323 unions have any women executives despite the fact that women carry over a third of all union membership cards.E. It is these single-parent families, says the International Labour Organisation, which make up the fastest rising group in any classification of the poor population. Even after the receipt of benefits, the incidence of poverty is only just below that of pensioners and is much higher than in any other group.F. In the case of younger women, such work loads are commonly combined with frequent pregnancy, childbirth and breast-feeding I exhausting processes for any woman’s body, but particularly debilitating when compounded by inadequate food and long hours of back-breaking work in the fields.
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