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The fascination with dreams has continued through the various phases of human history. There is reason to believe that the earliest societies may have considered dreaming as a voyage of the soul, a separation but quite definite being of the person. This, indeed, is how many primitive societies think of dreams today. More advanced societies have often thought of dreams as containing messages from the gods. This was one of the views held in ancient Egypt and Greece. While sleep has been considered an appropriate object of scientific study, dreaming has usually been considered rather a subject for fairy-tales and legends, and a plaything for philosophers. Even when Europeans started making progress in the physical and biological sciences, they dismissed dreaming as a proper scientific object because dreams were chiefly incomprehensible products of an inefficient, poorly oxygenated brain. In the nineteenth century, however, at least some medical men and scientists took dreaming more seriously and noted that dreams were perhaps the psychoses of madness of the normal man, during which strange and usually hidden thoughts appeared. This was in a sense a rediscovery of an old idea, already mentioned in Republic. Freud accepted this idea, and used his insight into dreaming to propose a complete theoretical outline for the organization of thought, involving primary processes and secondary process thinking. Freud was so impressed with the possibilities offered by the study of dreams for understanding mental life that he spoke of the dream as royal road to the un conscious.However, Freud and the psychiatrists who followed him considered dreaming from feeling and probably instantaneous phenomenon. The prevalent view was that either dreaming took place during the moment of awaking, or, on the other hand, that dreaming occurred constantly but was only very occasionally and haphazardly "sampled" by consciousness. In either ease, the various properties of dreaming were explained on the basis of the properties of the solid underlying state of sleep.A great deal of recent work completely contradicts this formulation indicating that dreaming is associated with an entire biological state of its own, state in many ways as different from ordinary sleep as it is different from waking. This biological state, or the D-state, has been found to occur in all mammalian species studied, as well as in people. It occurs at times when the psychological experience of dreaming is unlikely; for instance, in the newborn child, and the newborn cat. Recently a new field of inquiry has been developed by Aserinksy, Kleitman and other workers in the physiological, biological, and chemical sciences. This new field is the biology of dreaming, which sometimes has a focus far removed from the psychology of the dream. Through modem scientists’ joint effort, mysteries of dreaming may soon be unlocked. The author’s attitude toward Freud’s studies can be best described as （）
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Assuming that a constant travel-time budget, geographic constraints and short-term infrastructure constraints persist as fundamental features of global mobility, what long-term results can one expect7 In high-income regions, (41) North America, our picture suggests that the share of traffic (42) sup plied by buses and automobiles will decline as high-speed transport rises sharply. In developing countries, we (43) the strongest increase to be in the shares first for buses and later for automobiles. Glob ally, these (44) in bus and automobile transport are partially offsetting. In all regions, the share of low-speed rail transport will probably continue its strongly (45) decline.We expect that throughout the period 1990—2050, the (46) North American will continue to de vote most of his or her 1. 1-hour travel-time (47) to automobile travel. The very large demand (48) air travel (or high-speed rail travel) that will be manifest in 2050 (49) to only 12 minutes per person a day; a little time goes a long way in the air. In several developing regions, most travel (50) in 2050 will still be devoted to nonmotorized modes. Buses will persist (51) the primary form of motorized transportation in developing countries for decades. (52) important air travel becomes, buses, automobiles and (53) low-speed trains will surely go on serving vital functions. (54) of the super-rich al ready commute and shop in aircraft, but average people will continue to spend most of their travel time on the (55) . 53（）
In the simplest terms, a market is the place where seller meets buyer to exchange products for money. Traditional markets still function in many parts of the world. Even in the United Sates, during summer months, there are farmers’ markets where direct selling and buying take place between producers and consumers. Most service industries still operate at this market level.Manufacturing industries and most agricultural enterprises are more distant from the consumer. Their products pass through several hands--truckers, warehouse workers, wholesalers, and retailers before reaching the final consumer.Products, or commodities, are usually divided into two types: consumer and industrial. Consumer goods are those that are sold to final users, the customers. These goods include food, clothing, automobiles, television sets, appliances, and all those things people go to stores to purchase.Industrial goods are those that are sold to companies or other businesses for use in manufacturing or other purposes. Automobile makers buy many of the parts used to assemble cars. A tire manufacturer buys rubber, synthetic or otherwise, with which to make fires. Eventually these materials will end up in the hands of final users: the owners of the cars. The nature of industrial goods depends on the nature of the goods to be made for final users. The price of industrial goods and raw materials will influence the price of final goods, those that the consumer buys. Paper sold to a publishing industry（）
Assuming that a constant travel-time budget, geographic constraints and short-term infrastructure constraints persist as fundamental features of global mobility, what long-term results can one expect7 In high-income regions, (41) North America, our picture suggests that the share of traffic (42) sup plied by buses and automobiles will decline as high-speed transport rises sharply. In developing countries, we (43) the strongest increase to be in the shares first for buses and later for automobiles. Glob ally, these (44) in bus and automobile transport are partially offsetting. In all regions, the share of low-speed rail transport will probably continue its strongly (45) decline.We expect that throughout the period 1990—2050, the (46) North American will continue to de vote most of his or her 1. 1-hour travel-time (47) to automobile travel. The very large demand (48) air travel (or high-speed rail travel) that will be manifest in 2050 (49) to only 12 minutes per person a day; a little time goes a long way in the air. In several developing regions, most travel (50) in 2050 will still be devoted to nonmotorized modes. Buses will persist (51) the primary form of motorized transportation in developing countries for decades. (52) important air travel becomes, buses, automobiles and (53) low-speed trains will surely go on serving vital functions. (54) of the super-rich al ready commute and shop in aircraft, but average people will continue to spend most of their travel time on the (55) . 45（）
"Sloganeering" did not originate in the 1960s. The term has a rich history. It originated from the Gaelic word slaughgharim, which signified a "host-shout." "war cry," or "gathering word or phrase of one of the old Highland clans; hence the shout or battle cry of soldiers in the field." English-speaking people began using the term by 1704. The term at the time meant "the distinctive note, phrase, or cry of any person or body of persons." Slogans were common throughout the European continent during the middle ages, and they were utilized primarily as "passwords to insure pooper recognition of individuals at night or in the confusion of battle." The American revolutionary rhetoric would not have been the same without "the Boston Massacre," "the Boston Tea Party," "the shot heard around the world," and shouts of "no taxation without representation".Slogans operate in society as "social symbols" and, as such, their intended or perceived meaning may be difficult to grasp and their impact or stimulation may differ between and among individuals and groups.Because slogans may operate as "significant symbols" or as key words that have a standard meaning in a group, they serve both expressive and persuasive functions. Harold Lasswell recognized that the influencing of collective attitudes is possible by the manipulation of significant symbols such as slogans. He believed that a verbal symbol might evoke a desired reaction or organize collective attitudes around a symbol. Murray Edelman writes that "to the political scientist patterning or consistency in the context in which specific groups of individuals use symbols is crucial, for only through such patterning do common political meaning and claims arise." Thus, the slogans a group uses to evoke specific responses may provide ns with an index for the group’s norm, values, and conceptual rationale for its claims.Slogans are so pervasive in today’s society that it is easy to underestimate their persuasive power. They have grown in significance because of the medium of television and the advertising industry. Television, in addition to being the major advertising medium, has altered the nature of human interaction. Political images arc less personal and shorter. They function as summaries and conclusions rather than bases for public interaction and debate. The style of presentation in television is more emotional, but the content is less complex or ideological. In short, slogans work well on television.The advertising industry has made a science of sloganeering. Today, communication itself is a problem because we live in an "overcommunicated" society. Advertisers have discovered that it is easier to link product attributes to existing beliefs, ideas, goals, and desires of the consumer rather than to change them. Thus, to say that a cookie tastes "homemade" or is as good as "Mom used to make" does not tell us if the cookie is good or bad, hard or soft, but simply evokes the fond memories of Mother’s baking. Advertisers, then, are more successful if they present a product in a way that capitalizes on established beliefs or expectations of the consumer. Slogans do this well by crystallizing in a few words the key idea or theme one wants to associate with an issue, group, product, or event. "Sloganeering" has become institutionalized as a virtual art form, and an advertising agency may spend months testing and creating the right slogan for a product or a person.Slogans have a number of attributes that enhance their persuasive potential for social movements. They are unique and readily identifiable with a specific social movement or social movement organization. "Gray Power," for instance, readily identifies the movement for elderly Americans, and "Huelga" (strike in Spanish) identifies the movement to aid Mexican American field workers in the west and southwest. Lasswell’s and Edelman’s studies are important in that they （）
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