题目内容
Naturally, in a group of animals as diverse as the snakes, and with so many varied enemies, there are numerous defensive reactions and devices. There is, however, one general pattern of behavior. In the presence of suspected enemy the first reaction is to try to escape observation; if this fails, the next resort is the flight to some inaccessible retreat, but if this is not possible, or is circumvented, various kinds of intimidatory gestures and warning devices are brought into play; in the last resort the snake attacks. This pattern varies with the circumstances; some stages may be omitted or combined unpredictably whilst; some notoriously irascible species may dispense with all the preliminaries and attack almost at once, though seldom or never without some provocation. Amongst the factors that increase aggressiveness are hunger, the mating season and surprise, with the last mentioned the commonest; when hunting for food or for mate, activity and the aggressive instinct are both at their peak. Owing to their poor sense of hearing snakes are very liable to be, quite literally, caught napping and a similar situation arises during their periods of temporary blindness just before sloughing (蜕皮) begins. By far the greatest number of snake-bit accidents result from the unwitting disturbance of resting snakes, and this hazard is much increased with species that are well disguised and whose natural instinct is to trust to this concealment as their principal defense. As well as differences in aggressiveness between individuals of the same species according to the circumstances and conditions, there are also notable differences between species, even closely allied species; and the reports of those who have been attacked may understandably be lacking in objectivity. So it is impossible to forecast, even in outline, how any encounter will develop. The Hamadryad, for example, is usually credited with being amongst the most aggressive of snakes, and there are many accounts of unprovoked attacks, yet on one occasion fourteen men and seven dogs passed and returned within two yards from a nest and no snake was seen although the female, which guards the nest, could not have been far away. When a snake meets a potential enemy, its primary device is
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Cooperation is the only safeguard we have against the development of neurotic tendencies. It is therefore very important that children should be trained and encouraged in cooperation, and should be allowed to find their own way amongst children of their own age, in common tasks and shared games. Any barrier to cooperation will have serious consequences. The spoilt child, for example, who has learned to be interested only in himself, will take this lack of interest in others to school with him. His lessons will interest him only in so far as he thinks he gains his teachers’ favor. He will listen only to what he considers advantageous to himself. As approaches adulthood, the result of his lack of social feeling will become more and more evident. When he first misunderstood the meaning of life, he ceased training himself for responsibility and independence. By now he is painfully ill-equipped for life’s tests and difficulties. We cannot blame the adult for the child’s early mistakes. We can only help him to remedy them when he begins to suffer the consequences. We do not expect a child who has never been taught geography to score high marks in an examination paper on the subject. Similarly, we cannot expect a child who has never been trained in cooperation to respond appropriately when tasks that demand cooperation are set before him. But all of life’s problems demand an ability to cooperate if they are to be resolved; every task must be mastered within the framework of human society and in a way that furthers human welfare. Only the individual who understands that life means contribution will be able to meet his difficulties with courage and with a good chance of Success. If teachers, parents and psychologists understand the mistakes that can be made in ascribing a meaning to life, and provided they do not make the same mistakes themselves, we can be confident that children who lack social feeling will eventually develop a better sense of their own capacities and of the opportunities in life. When they meet problems, they will not stop trying; they will not look for an easy way out, try to escape or throw the burden onto the shoulders of others; they will not demand extra consideration or special sympathy; they will not feel humiliated and seek revenge, or ask, "what is the use of life What do I get from it" They will say, "we must make our own lives. It is our own task and we are capable of performing it. We are masters of our own actions. If something new must be done or something old replaced, no one can do it but ourselves." If life is approached in this way, as a cooperation of independent human beings, there are no limits to the progress of our human civilization. Cooperation can cure the following EXCEPT
Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on your answer sheet. Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency (crimes committed by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories (31) on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior (32) they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through (33) with others. Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that children commit crimes in (34) to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, (35) as a rejection of middleclass values. Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, (36) the fact that children from wealthy homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes (37) lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are (38) to criticism. Changes in the social structure may indirectly (39) juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that (40) to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment (41) make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in (42) lead more youths into criminal behavior. Families have also (43) changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents (44) , children are likely to have less supervision at home (45) was common in the traditional family (46) This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other (47) causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased (48) of drugs and alcohol, and the growing (49) of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, (50) a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.
When does history begin It is tempting to reply "In the beginning", but like many obvious answers, this soon turns out to be unhelpful. As a great Swiss historian once pointed out in another connection, history is the one subject where you cannot begin at the beginning. If we want to, we can trace the chain of human descent back to the appearance of vertebrates, or even to the photosynthetic cells which lie at the start of life itself. We can go back further still, to almost unimaginable upheavals which formed this planet and even to the origins of the universe. Yet this is not "history". Commonsense helps here: history is the story of mankind, of what it has done, suffered or enjoyed. We all know that dogs and cats do not have histories, while human beings do. Even when historians write about a natural process beyond human control, such as the ups and downs of climate, or the spread of disease, they do so only because it helps us to understand why men and women have lived (and died) in some ways rather than others. This suggests that all we have to do is to identify the moment at which the first human beings step out from the shadows of the remote past. It is not quite as simple as that, though. We have to know what we are looking for first and most attempts to define humanity on the basis of observable characteristics prove in the end arbitrary and cramping, as long arguments about "apemen" and "missing links" have shown. Physiological tests help us to classify data but do not identify what is or is not human. That is a matter of a definition about which disagreement is possible. Some people have suggested that human uniqueness lies in language, yet other primates possess vocal equipment similar to our own; when noises are made with it which are signals, at what point do they become speech Another famous definition is that man is a tool-maker, but observation has cast doubt on our uniqueness in this respect, too, long after Dr. Johnson scoffed at Boswell for quoting it to him. What is surely and identifiably unique about the human species is not its possession of certain faculties or physical characteristics, but what it has done with them--its achievement, or history, in fact. Humanity’s unique achievement is its remarkably intense level of activity and creativity, its cumulative capacity to create change. All animals have ways of living, some complex enough to be called cultures. Human culture alone is progressive: it has been increasingly built by conscious choice and selection within it as well as by accident and natural pressure, by the accumulation of a capital of experience and knowledge which man has exploited. Human history began when the inheritance of genetics and behavior which had until then provided the only way of dominating the environment was first broken through by conscious choice. Of course, human beings have always only been able to make theh- history within limits. These limits are now very wide indeed, but they were once so narrow that it is impossible to identify the first step which took human evolution away from the determination of nature. We have for a long time only a blurred story, obscure both because the evidence is poor and because we cannot be sure exactly what we are looking for. The passage is mainly about
Decide which of the choices given below would best complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks. Mark the best choice for each blank on your answer sheet. Many theories concerning the causes of juvenile delinquency (crimes committed by young people) focus either on the individual or on society as the major contributing influence. Theories (31) on the individual suggest that children engage in criminal behavior (32) they were not sufficiently penalized for previous misdeeds or that they have learned criminal behavior through (33) with others. Theories focusing on the role of society suggest that children commit crimes in (34) to their failure to rise above their socioeconomic status, (35) as a rejection of middleclass values. Most theories of juvenile delinquency have focused on children from disadvantaged families, (36) the fact that children from wealthy homes also commit crimes. The latter may commit crimes (37) lack of adequate parental control. All theories, however, are tentative and are (38) to criticism. Changes in the social structure may indirectly (39) juvenile crime rates. For example, changes in the economy that (40) to fewer job opportunities for youth and rising unemployment (41) make gainful employment increasingly difficult to obtain. The resulting discontent may in (42) lead more youths into criminal behavior. Families have also (43) changes these years. More families consist of one-parent households or two working parents (44) , children are likely to have less supervision at home (45) was common in the traditional family (46) This lack of parental supervision is thought to be an influence on juvenile crime rates. Other (47) causes of offensive acts include frustration or failure in school, the increased (48) of drugs and alcohol, and the growing (49) of child abuse and child neglect. All these conditions tend to increase the probability of a child committing a criminal act, (50) a direct causal relationship has not yet been established.
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