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In the two decades between 1910 and 1930, over ten percent of the Black population of the United States left the South, where the majority of the Black population had been located, and migrated to northern states, with the largest number moving, it is claimed, between 1916 and 1918. It has been frequently assumed, but not proved, that most of the migrants in what has come to be called the Great Migration came from rural areas and were motivated by two concurrent factors: the collapse of cotton industry following boll weevil infestation, which began in 1898, and increased demand in the North for labor following the cessation of European immigration caused by the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. This assumption has led to the conclusion that the migrants" subsequent lack of economic mobility in the North is tied to rural background, a background that implies unfamiliarity with urban living and a lack of industrial skills. But the question of who actually left the South has never been investigated in detail. Although numerous investigations document a flight from rural southern areas to southern cities prior to the Great Migration, no one has considered whether the same migrants then moved on to northern cities. In 1910 over 600,000 Black workers, or ten percent of the Black work force reported themselves to be engaged in "manufacturing and mechanical pursuits", the federal census category roughly including the entire industrial sector. The Great Migration could easily have been made up entirely of this group and their families. It is perhaps surprising to argue that an employed population could be tempted to move, but an explanation lies in the labor conditions then prevalent in the South. About thirty-five percent of the urban Black population in the South was engaged in skilled trades. Some were from the old artisan class of slavery—blacksmiths, masons, carpenters which had a monopoly of certain trades, but they were gradually being pushed out by competition, mechanization, and obsolescence. The remaining sixty-five percent, more recently urbanized, worked in newly developed industries—tobacco, lumber, coal and iron manufacture, and railroads. Wages in the South, however, were low, and Black workers were aware, through labor recruiters and the Black press, that they could earn more even as unskilled workers in the North than they could as artisans in the South. After the boll weevil infestation, urban Black workers faced competition from the continuing influx of both Black and White rural workers, who were driven to undercut the wages formerly paid for industrial jobs. Thus, a move" north would be seen as advantageous to a group that was already urbanized and steadily employed, and the easy conclusion tying their subsequent economic problems in the North to their rural backgrounds comes into question.Notes: boll weevil infestation 棉铃虫蔓延。cessation 中止，停止。mason 泥瓦匠。recruiter 招募者。influx涌入。 The material in the text would be most relevant to a long discussion of which of the following topics
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Bernard Bailyn has recently reinterpreted the early history of the United States by applying new social research findings on the experiences of European migrants. In his reinterpretation, migration becomes the organizing principle for rewriting the history of pre-industrial North America. His approach rests on four separate propositions. The first of these asserts that residents of early modern England moved regularly about their countryside: migrating to the New World was simply a "natural spillover". Although at first the colonies held little positive attraction for the English—they would rather have stayed home—by the eighteenth century people increasingly migrated to America because they regarded it as the land of opportunity. Secondly, Bailyn holds that, contrary to the notion that used to flourish in American history textbooks, there was never a typical New World community. For example, the economic and demographic character of early New England towns varied considerably. Bailyn"s third proposition suggests two general patterns prevailing among the many thousands of migrants: one group came as indentured servants, another came to acquire land. Surprisingly, Bailyn suggests that those who recruited indentured servants were driving forces of transatlantic migration. These colonial entrepreneurs helped determine the social character of people who came to pre-industrial North America. At first, thousands of unskilled laborers were recruited; by the 1730"s, however, American employers demanded skilled workers. Finally, Bailyn argues that the colonies were a half-civilized hinterland of the European culture system. He is undoubtedly correct to insist that the colonies were part of the Anglo-American empire. But to divide the empire into English core and colonial periphery, as Bailyn does, devalues the achievements of colonial culture. It is true, as Bailyn claims, that high culture in the colonies never matched that in England. But what of seventeenth-century New England, where the settlers created effective laws, built a distinguished university, and published books Bailyn might respond that New England was exceptional. However, the ideas and institutions developed by New England Puritans had powerful effects on North American culture. Although Bailyn goes on to apply his approach to some thousands of indentured servants who migrated just prior to the revolution, he fails to link their experience with the political development of the United States. Evidence presented in his work suggests how we might make such a connection. These indentured servants were treated as slaves for the period during which they had sold their time to American employers. It is not surprising that as soon as they served their time they gave up good wages in the cities and headed west to ensure their personal independence by acquiring land. Thus, it is in the west that a peculiarly American. political culture began, among colonists who were suspicious of authority and intensely anti-aristocratic.Notes: spillover n.外流。indentured servant合同工。hinterland n.内地。Anglo-American英裔美国人的。periphery n.边缘。anti-aristocratic反贵族的。demographics 人口统计(特点) Which of the following best summarizes the author"s evaluation of Bailyn"s fourth proposition
It is often observed that the aged spend much time thinking and talking about their past lives, rather than about the future. These reminiscences are not simply random or trivial memories, (1)_____ is their purpose merely to make conversation. The old person"s recollections of the past help to (2)_____ an identity that is becoming increasingly fragile: (3)_____ any role that brings respect or any goal that might provide (4)_____ to the future, the individual mentions their (5)_____ as a reminder to listeners, that here was a life (6)_____ living (7)_____, the memories form part of a continuing life (8)_____, in which the old person (9)_____ the events and experiences of the years gone by and (10)_____ on the overall meaning of his or her own almost completed life. As the life cycle (11)_____ to its close, the aged must also learn to accept the reality of their own impending death. (12)_____ this task is made difficult by the fact that death is almost a (13)_____ subject in the United States. The mere discussion of death is often regarded as (14)_____. As adults, many of us find the topic frightening and are (15)_____ to think about it and certainly not to talk about it (16)_____ the presence of someone who is dying. Death has achieved this taboo (17)_____ only in the modern industrial societies. There seems to be an important reason for our reluctance to (18)_____ the idea of death. It is the very fact that death remains (19)_____ our control; it is almost the only one of the natural processes (20)_____ is so.Notes: reminiscence n.回忆。fragile adj.脆弱的。impending adj.即将发生的。
In a perfectly free and open market economy, the type of employer—government or private—should have little or no impact on the earnings differentials between women and men. However, if there is discrimination against one sex, it is unlikely that the degree of discrimination by government and private employers will be the same. Differences in the degree of discrimination would result in earnings differentials associated with the type of employer. Given the nature of government and private employers, it seems most likely that discrimination by private employers would be greater. Thus, one would expect that, if women are being discriminated against, government employment would have a positive effect on women"s earnings as compared with their earnings from private employment. The results of a study by Fuchs support this assumption. Fuchs"s results suggest that the earnings of women in an industry composed entirely of government employees would be 14.6 percent greater than the earnings of women in an industry composed exclusively of private employees, other things being equal. In addition, both Fuchs and Sanborn have suggested that the effect of discrimination by consumers on the earnings of self-employed women may be greater than the effect of either government or private employer discrimination on the earnings of women employees. To test this hypothesis, Brown selected a large sample of white male and female workers from the 1970 Census and divided them into three categories: private employees, government employees, and self-employed. (Black workers were excluded from the sample to avoid picking up earnings differentials that were the result of racial disparities.) Brown"s research design controlled for education, labor-force participation, mobility, motivation, and age in order to eliminate these factors as explanations of the study"s results. Brown"s results suggest that men and women are not treated the same by employers and consumers. For men, self-employment is the highest earnings category, with private employment next and government lowest. For women, this order is reversed. One can infer from Brown"s results that consumers discriminate against self-employed women. In addition, self-employed women may have more difficulty than men in getting good employees and may encounter discrimination from suppliers and from financial institutions. Brown"s results are clearly consistent with Fuchs"s argument that discrimination by consumers has a greater impact on the earnings of women than does discrimination by either government or private employers. Also, the fact that women do better working for government than for private employers implies that private employers are discriminating against women. The results do not prove that government does not discriminate against women. They do, however, demonstrate that if government is discriminating against women, its discrimination is not having as much effect on women"s earnings as is discrimination in the private sector. The best title which describes the content of the text as a whole Would be
It is often observed that the aged spend much time thinking and talking about their past lives, rather than about the future. These reminiscences are not simply random or trivial memories, (1)_____ is their purpose merely to make conversation. The old person"s recollections of the past help to (2)_____ an identity that is becoming increasingly fragile: (3)_____ any role that brings respect or any goal that might provide (4)_____ to the future, the individual mentions their (5)_____ as a reminder to listeners, that here was a life (6)_____ living (7)_____, the memories form part of a continuing life (8)_____, in which the old person (9)_____ the events and experiences of the years gone by and (10)_____ on the overall meaning of his or her own almost completed life. As the life cycle (11)_____ to its close, the aged must also learn to accept the reality of their own impending death. (12)_____ this task is made difficult by the fact that death is almost a (13)_____ subject in the United States. The mere discussion of death is often regarded as (14)_____. As adults, many of us find the topic frightening and are (15)_____ to think about it and certainly not to talk about it (16)_____ the presence of someone who is dying. Death has achieved this taboo (17)_____ only in the modern industrial societies. There seems to be an important reason for our reluctance to (18)_____ the idea of death. It is the very fact that death remains (19)_____ our control; it is almost the only one of the natural processes (20)_____ is so.Notes: reminiscence n.回忆。fragile adj.脆弱的。impending adj.即将发生的。
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