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According to U.S. officials,
In news reports, to call a woman "grandmotherly" is shorthand for "kindly, frail, harmless, keeper of the family antimacassars, and operationally past tense."
For anthropologists and ethnographers of yore, grandmothers were crones, an impediment to "real" research. The renowned ethnographer Charles William Merton Hart, who in the 1920's studied the Tiwi hunter-gatherers of Australia, described the elder females there as "a terrible nuisance" and "physically quite revolting" and in whose company he was distressed to find himself on occasion, yet whose activities did not merit recording or analyzing with anything like the attention he paid to the men, the young women, even the children.
But for a growing number of evolutionary biologists and cultural anthropologists, grandmothers represent a key to understanding human prehistory, and the particulars of why we are as we are slow to grow up and start breeding but remarkably fruitful once we get there, empathetic and generous as animals go, and family-focused to a degree hardly seen elsewhere in the primate order.
As a result, biologists, evolutionary anthropologists, sociologists and demographers are starting to pay more attention to grandmothers': what they did in the past, whether and how they made a difference to their families' welfare, and what they are up to now in a sampling of cultures around the world.
At a recent international conference—the first devoted to grandmothers—researchers concluded with something approaching a consensus that grandmothers in particular, and elder female kin in general, have been an underrated source of power and sway in our evolutionary heritage. Grandmothers, they said, are in a distinctive evolutionary category. They are no longer reproductively active themselves, as older males may struggle to be, but they often have many hale years ahead of them; and as the existence of substantial proportions of older adults among even the most "primitive" cultures indicates, such durability is nothing new.
If, over the span of human evolution, postmenopausal women have not been using their stalwart bodies for bearing babies, they very likely have been directing their considerable energies elsewhere.
Say, over the river and through the woods. It turns out that there is h reason children are perpetually yearning for the flour-dusted, mythical figure called grandma or granny or oma or abuelita. As a number of participants at the conference demonstrated, the presence or absence of a grandmother often spelled the difference in traditional subsistence cultures between life or death for the grandchildren. In fact, having a grandmother around sometimes improved a child's prospects to a far greater extent than did the presence of a father.
Dr. Ruth Mace and Dr. Rebecca Sear of the department of anthropology at University College in London, for example, analyzed demographic information from rural Gambia that was collected from 1950 to 1974, when child mortality rates in the area were so high that even minor discrepancies in care could be all too readily tallied. The anthropologists found that for Gambian toddlers, weaned from the protective balm of breast milk but not yet possessing strength and immune vigor of their own, the presence of a grandmother cut their chances of dying in half.
"The surprising result to us was that if the father was alive or dead didn't matter," Dr. Mace said in a telephone interview. "If the grandmother dies, you notice it; if the father does, you don't."
Importantly, this beneficent granny effect derived only from maternal grandmothers— the mother of one's mother.
A lawyer friend of mine has devoted herself to the service of humanity. Her special area is called "public interest law".
Many other lawyers represent only clients who can pay high fees. (76) All lawyers have had expensive and highly specialized training , and they work long, difficult hours for the money they earn. But what happens to people who need legal help and cannot afford to pay these lawyers' fees？
Public interest lawyers fill this need. Lisa, like other public interest lawyers, earns a salary much below what some lawyers can earn. Because she is willing to take less money, her clients need the help, even if they can pay nothing at all.
Some clients need legal help because stores have cheated them with faulty merchandise. Others are in unsafe apartments, or are threatened with eviction (驱逐，赶出) and have no place to go to. Their cases are called "civil" cases. Still others are accused of criminal acts, and seeking those public interest lawyers who handle "criminal" cases. (77) These are just a few of the many situations in which men and women who are public interest lawyers serve to extend justice throughout our society.
A person who needs and uses legal help is called a______.
It was a beautiful summer day and I was taking a walk in the downtown area of Madrid.
When I turned a street【56】I heard the voice of a lovely Spanish singer【57】from a nearby cafe. The music【58】me, so I went to the cafe to hear it【59】.
I sat down at a table near the door. The waiter came over, and I【60】a glass of wine.
While【61】my wine, I listened to the soft music. The【62】was a young lady, a little too fat, but【63】pretty. A black young man was playing the piano.
The waiter returned【64】the glass of wine and put it on the【65】. I started drinking the wine slowly and【66】the other people in the cafe. They were all men【67】women seldom go into the cafes in Spain.
There were three men【68】at a table near mine. I could【69】by their accents that one of them was an American, one an Englishman and the third man a【70】. The waiter served each of the three men a glass of beer. By chance, each glass had a【71】in it. The American picked up his glass, noticed the fly and poured the beer and the fly was thrown onto the floor. The English- man looked into his glass, noticed the fly and【72】a spoon, with which he took the fly out of the beer, and drank the【73】of it.
The stranger noticed the fly in the beer,【74】. He picked it up with his fingers, squeezed it carefully in order to save every drop of beer, then drank the beer【75】.
(36)
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