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As they grow older, most people wonder how increasing age will affect intelligence. Can people in middle age and beyond expect to think as effectively and to solve problems as efficiently as they have in the pastOne of the difficulties in comparing the intellectual functioning of people at different ages is the problem of cohort((具有相同特征的)一群人) effects. Different age groups in the population have experienced different historical events (wars, exposure to television, and so on) as well as changes in the general standard of living. Different scores that people of varying ages achieve on intelligence tests could be partly due to changes in diet, housing, or health care or, even more likely, to the amount and quality of education. Since the beginning of this century, there has been a trend for more people to go to school and to remain in school longer. Because it eliminates these cohort effects, a longevous (长寿的) study may be the best way to look at age-related changes in intellectual functioning.One of the few longevous studies of intellectual functioning is the Seattle Longevous Study, conducted by K. Warner Schaie and his associates. The original subjects, who ranged in age from 18 to 67, have now been tested 4 times over a 21 year period. These results have given a reasonably good picture of longitudinal(纵向的) change in cognitive abilities.The data show that there are only trivial changes in the kinds of abilities measured by intelligence tests before the age of 60, and no reliable decrease can be shown in these abilities before age 74. Although there is some decrease in measured ability in the late 60s and the 70s, it is not until age 81 that the average person falls below the middle range of performance for young adults.The data from the Seattle Longevous Study also suggest that there are very great individual differences in intellectual change throughout adulthood. Between the ages of 74 and 81, less than half the subjects showed any significant change. One important factor is health, especially the presence or absence of coronary(冠状) heart disease. Another is a high socioeconomic status, which is related not only to higher initial levels of functioning but to the maintenance of a higher level throughout life.A flexible life style in middle age, probably associated with a flexible personality style, also tends to predict high performance in old age. While some of these variables may have substantial hereditary (遗传的) elements, changes in environment and education could also be important in maintaining a higher level of functioning for many individuals. Comparing the intellectual functioning of different age groups of people is a tough job because of the changes in （）.
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Directions:You will hear three pieces of recorded material. Before listening to each one, you will have time to read the questions related to it. While listening, answer each question by choosing A, B, C or D. After listening, you will have time to check your answers. You will hear each piece once only.Questions 11—13 are based on the passage about ice phrases. You now have 15 seconds to read Questions 11—13. When somebody told you that you will "cut no ice" with him, what did he mean
Mark Twain’s letter about the Statue of Liberty ______.
If you want to stay young, sit down and have a good think. This is the research finding of a team of Japanese doctors, who say that most of our brains are not getting enough exercise—and as a result, we are aging unnecessarily soon.Professor Taiju Matsuzawa wanted to find out why otherwise healthy farmers in northern Japan appeared to be losing their ability to think and reason at a relatively early age, and how the process of aging could be slowed down.With a team of colleagues at Tokyo National University, he set about measuring brain volumes of a thousand people of different ages and varying occupations.Computer technology enabled the researchers to obtain precise measurements of the volume of the front and side sections of the brain, which relate to intellect (智能) and emotion, and determine the human character. (The rear section of the brain, which controls functions like eating and breathing, does not contract with age, and one can continue living without intellectual or emotional faculties.)Contraction of front and side parts—as cells die off—was observed in some subjects in their thirties, but it was still not evident in some sixty- and seventy-year-olds.Matsuzawa concluded from his tests that there is a simple remedy to the contraction normally associated with age—using the head. The findings show in general terms that contraction of the brain begins sooner in people in the country than in the towns. Those least at risk, says Matsuzawa, are lawyers, followed by university professors and doctors. White collar workers doing routine work in government offices are, however, as likely to have shrinking brains as the farm worker, bus driver and shop assistant. Matsuzawa’s findings show that thinking can prevent the brain from shrinking. Blood must circulate properly in the head to supply the fresh oxygen the brain cells need. “The best way to maintain good blood circulation is through using the brain,” he says, “Think hard and engage in conversation. Don’t rely on pocket calculators.” The team of doctors wanted to find out （）.
What does "Pay yourself first" refer to
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