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Passage Two The key position and role of women in the process of development is increasingly being recognized. Although the three great World Conferences of Women were more concerned with recognizing and compiling approaches to emancipation we can currently confirm a general sharpening of awareness. It has become clear that the Third World cultures, in earlier times strongly matriarchal, have been weakened in this respect by the methods of colonial education which are almost exclusively directed towards the male. Of the many criticisms of this situation let one voice be heard: "Development education’ groups and programs are very much male dominated and lack woman’s perspective". So, too, the hopes placed in vocational training--"vocationalization’--as an aid to equality have been disappointed since this in its turn was to large extent focused on the male. In these circumstances we should not be surprised that until now women have participated least in the educational processes which have been introduced. Only 20% attend primary school and the percentage of those who leave early is highest among girls. Because of the lack of basic training only around 10% take part in Adult Education programs. Hence it is vitally important to secure a turning point by increasing the awareness of the need for education. The International Conference at Jomtien in 1990 provided the solution to this: "A more educated mother raises a healthier family. She has fewer and better educated children. She is more productive at home and in the workplace and is better able to get further education." Many problems in school are consequences of incorrect or improperly balanced nutrition combined with .inadequate hygiene. Together these factors can lead to failure to keep pace in school. Hence even primary education for girls should be directed towards the basic needs and necessities and provide answers which are as simple as possible. In rural districts such answers will be different from those given in urban areas. The education of girls and women must to a large degree be an education for the life they will lead, tailored to a woman’s position. In saying this we are in fact demanding that the education of women, like all educational work in the Third World, should be an integrated part of the community. Consequently there are many partners in this process school, family, small businesses, governmental and non-governmental organizations. The educational skill consists in keeping this interplay active in such a way that there is no deficiency in material content. An important consequence of this is the awakening of the desire to question, which, on the one hand presses for further education and on the other hand for its practical application. The word "emancipation" (Paragraph 1) may be replaced by ______.
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Directions: Read the following passage. For each numbered blank there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best one and mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. One of the most eminent of psychologists, Clark Hull, claimed that the essence of reasoning lies in the putting together of two ’behavior segments’ in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal. Two followers of Clark Hull, Howard and Tracey Kendler, (21) a test for children that was explicitly based on Clark Hull’s principles. The children were given the (22) of learning to operate a machine so as to get a toy. In order to succeed they had to go through a two-stage (23) . The children were trained on each stage (24) . The stages consisted merely of pressing the correct one of two buttons to get a marble; and of (25) the marble into a small hole to release the toy. The Kendlers found that the children could learn the separate bits readily enough. (26) the task of getting a marble by pressing the button they could get the marble; given the task of getting a toy when a marble was handed to them, they could use the marble. (All they had to do was put it in a hole.) (27) they did not for the most part ’integrate’, to use the Kendlers’ terminology. They did not press the button to get the marble and then (28) without further help to use the marble to get the toy. So the Kendlers concluded that they were incapable of deductive (29) . The mystery at first appears to deepen when we learn, from (30) psychologist, Michael Cole, and his colleagues, that adults in an African culture apparently cannot do the Kendlers’ task either. But it lessens, (31) when we learn that a task was devised which was (32) to the Kendlers’ one but much easier for the African males to handle. (33) the button-pressing machine, Cole used a locked box and two (34) colored match-boxes, one of which contained a key that would open the box. Notice that there are still two (35) segments--"open the right matchbox to get the key" and "use the key to open the box"--so the task seems formally to be (36) But psychologically it is quite different. Now the subject is dealing not with a strange machine but with familiar meaningful objects; and it is clear to him what he is meant to do. It then (37) that the difficulty of integration is greatly reduced. Recent work by Simon Hewson is of great interest here for it shows that, for young children, (38) , the difficulty lies not in the (39) processes which the task demands, but in certain perplexing features of the apparatus and the procedure. When these are changed in ways which do not at all affect the inferential nature of the problem, then five-year-old children solve the problem (40) college students did in the Kendlers’ own experiments.
Passage Four Science is an enterprise concerned with gaining information about causality, or the relationship between cause and effect. A simple example of a cause is the movement of a paddle as it strikes a ping-pong ball; the effect is the movement of the ball through the air. In psychology and other sciences, the word "cause" is often replaced by the term "independent variable". This term implies that the experimenter is often "free" to vary the independent variable as he or she desires (for example, the experimenter can control the speed of the paddle as it strikes the ball). The term "dependent variable" replaces the word "effect", and this term is used because the effect depends on some characteristic of the independent variable (the flight of the ball depends on the speed of the paddle). The conventions of science demand that both the independent and dependent variables be observable events, as is the case in the ping-pong example. In the case of biorhythm theory, the independent variable is the number of days that have elapsed between a person’s date of birth and some test day. The dependent variable is the person’s level of performance on some specified task on the test day. Notice that although the experimenter is not free to choose a birthday for a given individual, persons with different dates of birth can be tested on the same day, or a single subject can be tested on several different days. In order to predict the relationship between independent and dependent variables, many scientific theories make use of what are called intervening variables. Intervening variables are purely theoretical concepts that cannot be observed directly. To predict the flight of a ping-pong ball, Newtonian physics relies on a number of intervening variables, including force, mass, air resistance, and gravity. You can probably anticipate that the intervening variables of biorhythm theory are the three bodily cycles with their specified time periods. It should be emphasized that not all psychological theories include intervening variables, and some psychologists object to their use precisely because they are not directly observable. The final major component of a scientific theory is its syntax, or the rules and definitions that state how the independent and dependent variables are to be measured, and that specify the relationships among independent variables, intervening variables, and dependent variables. It is the syntax of biorhythm theory that describes how to use a person’s birthday to calculate the current status of the three cycles. The syntax also relates the cycles to the dependent variable, performance, by stating that positive cycles should cause high levels of performance whereas low or critical cycles should cause low performance levels. To summarize, the components of a scientific theory can be divided into four major categories: independent variables, dependent variables, intervening variables, and syntax. According to biorhythm theory, ______.
Directions: Read the following passage. For each numbered blank there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best one and mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. One of the most eminent of psychologists, Clark Hull, claimed that the essence of reasoning lies in the putting together of two ’behavior segments’ in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal. Two followers of Clark Hull, Howard and Tracey Kendler, (21) a test for children that was explicitly based on Clark Hull’s principles. The children were given the (22) of learning to operate a machine so as to get a toy. In order to succeed they had to go through a two-stage (23) . The children were trained on each stage (24) . The stages consisted merely of pressing the correct one of two buttons to get a marble; and of (25) the marble into a small hole to release the toy. The Kendlers found that the children could learn the separate bits readily enough. (26) the task of getting a marble by pressing the button they could get the marble; given the task of getting a toy when a marble was handed to them, they could use the marble. (All they had to do was put it in a hole.) (27) they did not for the most part ’integrate’, to use the Kendlers’ terminology. They did not press the button to get the marble and then (28) without further help to use the marble to get the toy. So the Kendlers concluded that they were incapable of deductive (29) . The mystery at first appears to deepen when we learn, from (30) psychologist, Michael Cole, and his colleagues, that adults in an African culture apparently cannot do the Kendlers’ task either. But it lessens, (31) when we learn that a task was devised which was (32) to the Kendlers’ one but much easier for the African males to handle. (33) the button-pressing machine, Cole used a locked box and two (34) colored match-boxes, one of which contained a key that would open the box. Notice that there are still two (35) segments--"open the right matchbox to get the key" and "use the key to open the box"--so the task seems formally to be (36) But psychologically it is quite different. Now the subject is dealing not with a strange machine but with familiar meaningful objects; and it is clear to him what he is meant to do. It then (37) that the difficulty of integration is greatly reduced. Recent work by Simon Hewson is of great interest here for it shows that, for young children, (38) , the difficulty lies not in the (39) processes which the task demands, but in certain perplexing features of the apparatus and the procedure. When these are changed in ways which do not at all affect the inferential nature of the problem, then five-year-old children solve the problem (40) college students did in the Kendlers’ own experiments.
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