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If an occupation census had been taken in the eleventh century，it would probably have revealed that quite 90%of the people were country dwellers who drew their livelihood from farming，herding，fishing，or the forest．An air photograph taken at that time would have revealed a sprinkling of villages，linked together by un—surfaced roads and more than 10，000 persons．A second picture，taken in the mid—fourteenth century would show that the villages had grown larger，more numerous，and also more widespread，for Europeans had pushed their frontier outward by clearing，draining，and settling new areas．There would be more people on the road，rivers and seas，carrying food or raw materials to towns which had increased in number，size and importance． But a photograph taken about 1450 would reveal that little further expansion had taken place during the preceding hundred years． Any attempt to describe the countryside during those centuries is beset by two difficulties．In the first place we have to examine the greater part of Europe’s 3,50,000 square miles，and not merely the Mediterranean lands．In the second place the inhabitants of that wide expanse refuse to fit into one standard pattern or to stand still． There is variety and there is change．①Consequently, as a distinguished student of medieval rural life once remarked, "In the history of land problems, there is no sin like the sin of generalization" and "There is no heresy about the Middle Ages quite so pernicious(有害的)as the theory that they were unchanging." In the early days of studying economic history it was customary to describe a "typical" manor and give the impression that all rural life was of this kind. But a vast amount of research has been done since then, for the field is an interesting one, the documents are abundant in some countries, the work calls for great patience and skill, and the results may be revolutionary. From such arduous (辛勤的) labor Professor Eileen Power emerged with the conclusion that "manor" was a term about as descriptive as the word "mammal". ②After equally arduous effort Professor Kosminsky defined the manor as a community in which unfree villagers (villains, serfs")cultivated their lord’s domain as the price of their serfdom and of their use of a holding of land. He then discovered that even in the English midlands, the stronghold of manors, only about 60% of the territory was "manorial" in 1279. The remaining 40% was non-manorial; it had no unfree tenants, or it had no domain, or it was all domain and had no villain holdings. In France and other continental regions research is revealing similar diversity. After reading a recent study of the seigniorial (领主的) system in Lorraine, one reviewer threw up his hands and exclaimed, "The more we look at things, the more they appear complicated.\ It is implied in the passage that the findings made in the study concerning economic history may be ______.
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Since the buildup to the war with Iraq, British Prime Minister Tony Blair has taken it on the chin from the media. The British media ordinarily grill politicians, but in this case they have been particularly feisty, empowered by opinion polls that showed most Brits wanted nothing to do with invading Iraq. ①Until now the American media, which by nature are less aggressive than their British counterparts but probably are taking a lead from polls and politicians that supported the administration’s war stance, have gone relatively easy on President Bust. But this week the media have hit the administration hard with questions about Bush’s State of the Union statement that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger, one of the administration’s justifications for war. And with the 2004 campaign heating up and Bush’s approval rating dipping, his administration is being grilled harder than it has been in months. Experts say the questioning will get sharper as summer progresses. ②"That Democrats are just now ’beginning to get traction’ on the justification for the war is an example of how differently politics are played in the U.S.A. than they are in Britain"says Martin Turner, Washington bureau chief of the BBC. The respondents have been highly critical of the war and suspicious of administration claims that weapons of mass destruction exist in Iraq. In Britain, whereas prime minister must defend himself every week before Parliament, the media take a "much more muscular approach to grilling politicians", Turner says. Here, the BBC is often regarded as a rather impolite member of the Washington press corps. "We tend to ask questions in a different way than they are asked on the Sunday political programs." In London, Michael Goldfarb, senior correspondent for National Public Radio affiliate WBUR in Boston, says his British counterparts talk about "how astonishing the ride has been for Bush" and how the Bush administration "manages the news like it’s nobody’s business. Here they call Blair Bush’s poodle (狮子狗)". But then again, he says, British media "simply don’t hold to the American notion of objectivity and certainly not impartiality". ABC anchor Peter Jennings, who reported from London in the 1970s and 1980s, says he has "always been struck by how mu ch more aggressive the British press is". They’re simply much more aggressive. In the U.S.A., "there is no doubt that the press is aware of the influence of a powerful president, and the press is aware to some extent that it is in competition for public opinion, so there is always stress between a powerful president and the press." But in the past week, with debate over the war heating up, it led several of Jennings’ World News Tonight broadcasts. "Our reporters sense some deep concern about what is happening.\ What Jennings said implies that the press in America ______.
St.Paul didn’t like it. Moses warned his people against it. Hesiod declared it "mischievous" and "hard to get rid of it", but Oscar Wilder said, "Gossip is charming." "History is merely gossip," he wrote in one of his famous plays. "But scandal is gossip made tedious by morality." In times past, under Jewish law, gossipmongers might be fined or flogged(鞭笞). The Puritans put them in stocks or ducking stools, but no punishment seemed to have the desired effect of preventing gossip, which has continued uninterrupted across the back fences of the centuries. Today, however, the much maligned human foible(弱点) is being looked at in a different light. Psychologists, sociologists, philosophers, even evolutionary biologists are concluding that gossip may not be so bad after all. "Gossip is a valuable activity," philosophy professor Aaron Ben-Ze’ev states in a book he has edited, entitled Good Gossip. For one thing, gossip helps us acquire information that we need to know that doesn’t come through ordinary channels, such as: "What was the real reason so-and-so was fired from the office Gossip also is a form of social bonding," Dr. Ben-Ze’ev says. It is "a kind of sharing" that also "satisfies the tribal need--namely, the need to belong to and be accepted by a unique group". What’s more, the professor notes, "Gossip is enjoyable." ①Another gossip groupie, Dr.Ronald de Sousa a professor of philosophy at the University of Toronto, describes gossip basically as are from of indiscretion and a "saintly virtue", by which he means that the knowledge spread by gossip will usually end up being slightly beneficial. "It seems likely that a world in which all information were universally available would be preferable to a world where immense power resides in the control of secrets," he writes. Still, everybody knows that gossip can have its ill effects, especially on the poor wretch being gossiped about. And people should refrain from certain kinds of gossip that might be harmful, even though the ducking stool is long out of fashion. ②By the way there is also an interesting strain of gossip called medical gossip, which in its best form, according to researchers Jerry M.Suls and Franklin Gookin, can motivate people with symptoms of serious illness, but who are unaware of it to seek medical help. So go ahead and gossip. But remember, if (as often is the case among gossipers) you should suddenly become one of the gossips instead, it is best to employ the foolproof defense recommended by Plato, who may have learned the lesson from Socrates, who as you know was the victim of gossip spread that he was corrupting the youth of Athens: when men speak ill of you, so live that nobody will believe them. Or, as Will Rogers said, "Live so that you wouldn’t be ashamed to sell the family parrot to the town gossip.\ Persons’ remarks are mentioned at the beginning of the passage to ______.
In 2012, America will still be the place where the future happens first, for that is the nation’s oldest tradition. The early Puritans lived in almost Stone Age conditions, but they were inspired by visions of future glories, God’s kingdom on earth. The early pioneers would sometimes travel past perfectly good farmland, because they were convinced that even more amazing land could be found over the next ridge. The Founding Fathers took t 3 scraggly Colonies and believed they were creating a new nation on earth. The railroad speculators envisioned magnificent fortunes built on bands of iron. This future-mindedness explains many modem features of American life. It explains workaholism: the average American works 350 hours a year more than the average European. Americans move more, in search of that brighter tomorrow, than people in other lands. They also, sadly, divorce more, for the same reason. Americans adopt new technologies such as online shopping and credit cards much more quickly than people in other countries. Forty-five percent of world Internet use takes place in the United States. Even today, after the bursting of the stock-market bubble, American venture-capital firms--which are in the business of betting on the future--dwarf the firms from all other nations. Future-mindedness contributes to the disorder in American life, the obliviousness to history, the high rates of family breakdown, the frenzied waste of natural resources. It also leads to incredible innovation. According to the Yale historian Paul Kennedy, 75 percent of the Noble laureates in economics and the sciences over recent decades have lived or worked in the United States. One in 12 Americans has enjoyed the thrill and challenge of starting his own business. A study published in the Journal of International Business Studies in 2000 showed that innovative people are spread pretty evenly throughout the globe, but Americans are most comfortable with risk. If the 1990s were a great decade of future-mindedness, we are now in the midst of a season of experience. It seems cooler to be skeptical, to pooh-pooh all those IPO suckers who lost their money betting on the telecom future. By 2012, this period of chastisement(惩罚) will likely have run its course, and future-mindedness will be back in vogue, for better or worse. We don’t know exactly what the next future-minded frenzy will look like. We do know where it will take place: the American suburb. In 1979, three quarters of American office space were located in central cities. The new companies, research centers and entrepreneurs are flocking to these low buildings near airports, highways and the Wal-Mart mails, and they are creating a new kind of suburban life. We are now approaching a moment in which the majority of American office space, and the hub of American entrepreneurship, will be found in quiet office parks in places like Rockville, Maryland, and in the sprawling suburbosphere around Atlanta. We also know that future-mindedness itself will become the object of greater study. We are discovering that there are many things that human beings do easily that computers can do only with great difficulty, if at all. Cognitive scientists are now trying to decode the human imagination, to understand how the brain visualizes, dreams and creates. And we know, too, that where there is future-mindedness there is hope. The first paragraph examines America’s future-mindedness from the ______ perspective.
Since the buildup to the war with Iraq, British Prime Minister Tony Blair has taken it on the chin from the media. The British media ordinarily grill politicians, but in this case they have been particularly feisty, empowered by opinion polls that showed most Brits wanted nothing to do with invading Iraq. ①Until now the American media, which by nature are less aggressive than their British counterparts but probably are taking a lead from polls and politicians that supported the administration’s war stance, have gone relatively easy on President Bust. But this week the media have hit the administration hard with questions about Bush’s State of the Union statement that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger, one of the administration’s justifications for war. And with the 2004 campaign heating up and Bush’s approval rating dipping, his administration is being grilled harder than it has been in months. Experts say the questioning will get sharper as summer progresses. ②"That Democrats are just now ’beginning to get traction’ on the justification for the war is an example of how differently politics are played in the U.S.A. than they are in Britain"says Martin Turner, Washington bureau chief of the BBC. The respondents have been highly critical of the war and suspicious of administration claims that weapons of mass destruction exist in Iraq. In Britain, whereas prime minister must defend himself every week before Parliament, the media take a "much more muscular approach to grilling politicians", Turner says. Here, the BBC is often regarded as a rather impolite member of the Washington press corps. "We tend to ask questions in a different way than they are asked on the Sunday political programs." In London, Michael Goldfarb, senior correspondent for National Public Radio affiliate WBUR in Boston, says his British counterparts talk about "how astonishing the ride has been for Bush" and how the Bush administration "manages the news like it’s nobody’s business. Here they call Blair Bush’s poodle (狮子狗)". But then again, he says, British media "simply don’t hold to the American notion of objectivity and certainly not impartiality". ABC anchor Peter Jennings, who reported from London in the 1970s and 1980s, says he has "always been struck by how mu ch more aggressive the British press is". They’re simply much more aggressive. In the U.S.A., "there is no doubt that the press is aware of the influence of a powerful president, and the press is aware to some extent that it is in competition for public opinion, so there is always stress between a powerful president and the press." But in the past week, with debate over the war heating up, it led several of Jennings’ World News Tonight broadcasts. "Our reporters sense some deep concern about what is happening.\ The passage is primarily concerned with ______.
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