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Directions: Read the following four passages. Answer the questions below each passage by choosing A, B, C or D. Mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1.Passage One Is it possible that the ideas we have today about ownership and property rights have been so universal in the human mind that it is truly as if they had sprung from the mind of God By no means. The idea of owning and property emerged in the mists of unrecorded history. The ancient Jews, for one, had a very different outlook on property and ownership, viewing it as something much more temporary and’ tentative than we do. The ideas we have in America about the private ownership of productive property as a natural and universal right of mankind, perhaps of divine origin, are by no means universal and must be viewed as an invention of man rather than an order of God. Of course, we are completely trained to accept the idea of ownership of the earth and its products, raw and transformed. It seems not at all strange; in fact, it is quite difficult to imagine a society without such arrangements. If someone, some individuals, didn’t own that plot of land, that house, that factory, that machine, that tower of wheat, how would we function What would the rules be Whom would we buy from and how would we sell It is important to acknowledge a significant difference between achieving ownership simply by taking or claiming property and owning what we tend to call the "fruit of labor." If I, alone or together with my family, work on the land and raise crops, or if I make something useful out of natural material, it seems reasonable and fair to claim that the crops or the objects belong to me or my family, are my property, at least in the sense that I have first claim on them. Hardly anyone would dispute that. In fact, some of the early radical workingmen’s movements made (an ownership) claim on those very grounds. As industrial organization became more complex, however, such issues became vastly more intricate. It must be clear that in modem society the social heritage of knowledge and technology and the social organization of manufacture and exchange account for far more of the productivity of industry and the value of what is produced than can be accounted for by the labor of any number of individuals. Hardly any person can now point and say, "That--that right there--is the fruit of my labor." We can say, as a society, as a nation--as a world, really--that what is produced is the fruit of our labor, the product of the whole society as a collectivity. We have to recognize that the right of private individual ownership of property is man-made and constantly dependent on the extent to which those without property believe that the owner can make his claim, dependent on the extent to which those without stick. Private ownership of property is described at the end of the passage as ______.
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Directions: Read the following passage. For each numbered blank there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best one and mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. One of the most eminent of psychologists, Clark Hull, claimed that the essence of reasoning lies in the putting together of two ’behavior segments’ in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal. Two followers of Clark Hull, Howard and Tracey Kendler, (21) a test for children that was explicitly based on Clark Hull’s principles. The children were given the (22) of learning to operate a machine so as to get a toy. In order to succeed they had to go through a two-stage (23) . The children were trained on each stage (24) . The stages consisted merely of pressing the correct one of two buttons to get a marble; and of (25) the marble into a small hole to release the toy. The Kendlers found that the children could learn the separate bits readily enough. (26) the task of getting a marble by pressing the button they could get the marble; given the task of getting a toy when a marble was handed to them, they could use the marble. (All they had to do was put it in a hole.) (27) they did not for the most part ’integrate’, to use the Kendlers’ terminology. They did not press the button to get the marble and then (28) without further help to use the marble to get the toy. So the Kendlers concluded that they were incapable of deductive (29) . The mystery at first appears to deepen when we learn, from (30) psychologist, Michael Cole, and his colleagues, that adults in an African culture apparently cannot do the Kendlers’ task either. But it lessens, (31) when we learn that a task was devised which was (32) to the Kendlers’ one but much easier for the African males to handle. (33) the button-pressing machine, Cole used a locked box and two (34) colored match-boxes, one of which contained a key that would open the box. Notice that there are still two (35) segments--"open the right matchbox to get the key" and "use the key to open the box"--so the task seems formally to be (36) But psychologically it is quite different. Now the subject is dealing not with a strange machine but with familiar meaningful objects; and it is clear to him what he is meant to do. It then (37) that the difficulty of integration is greatly reduced. Recent work by Simon Hewson is of great interest here for it shows that, for young children, (38) , the difficulty lies not in the (39) processes which the task demands, but in certain perplexing features of the apparatus and the procedure. When these are changed in ways which do not at all affect the inferential nature of the problem, then five-year-old children solve the problem (40) college students did in the Kendlers’ own experiments.
Passage Two The key position and role of women in the process of development is increasingly being recognized. Although the three great World Conferences of Women were more concerned with recognizing and compiling approaches to emancipation we can currently confirm a general sharpening of awareness. It has become clear that the Third World cultures, in earlier times strongly matriarchal, have been weakened in this respect by the methods of colonial education which are almost exclusively directed towards the male. Of the many criticisms of this situation let one voice be heard: "Development education’ groups and programs are very much male dominated and lack woman’s perspective". So, too, the hopes placed in vocational training--"vocationalization’--as an aid to equality have been disappointed since this in its turn was to large extent focused on the male. In these circumstances we should not be surprised that until now women have participated least in the educational processes which have been introduced. Only 20% attend primary school and the percentage of those who leave early is highest among girls. Because of the lack of basic training only around 10% take part in Adult Education programs. Hence it is vitally important to secure a turning point by increasing the awareness of the need for education. The International Conference at Jomtien in 1990 provided the solution to this: "A more educated mother raises a healthier family. She has fewer and better educated children. She is more productive at home and in the workplace and is better able to get further education." Many problems in school are consequences of incorrect or improperly balanced nutrition combined with .inadequate hygiene. Together these factors can lead to failure to keep pace in school. Hence even primary education for girls should be directed towards the basic needs and necessities and provide answers which are as simple as possible. In rural districts such answers will be different from those given in urban areas. The education of girls and women must to a large degree be an education for the life they will lead, tailored to a woman’s position. In saying this we are in fact demanding that the education of women, like all educational work in the Third World, should be an integrated part of the community. Consequently there are many partners in this process school, family, small businesses, governmental and non-governmental organizations. The educational skill consists in keeping this interplay active in such a way that there is no deficiency in material content. An important consequence of this is the awakening of the desire to question, which, on the one hand presses for further education and on the other hand for its practical application. It is very important to be more aware of the need for education of women because ______.
Directions: Read the following passage. For each numbered blank there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best one and mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. One of the most eminent of psychologists, Clark Hull, claimed that the essence of reasoning lies in the putting together of two ’behavior segments’ in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal. Two followers of Clark Hull, Howard and Tracey Kendler, (21) a test for children that was explicitly based on Clark Hull’s principles. The children were given the (22) of learning to operate a machine so as to get a toy. In order to succeed they had to go through a two-stage (23) . The children were trained on each stage (24) . The stages consisted merely of pressing the correct one of two buttons to get a marble; and of (25) the marble into a small hole to release the toy. The Kendlers found that the children could learn the separate bits readily enough. (26) the task of getting a marble by pressing the button they could get the marble; given the task of getting a toy when a marble was handed to them, they could use the marble. (All they had to do was put it in a hole.) (27) they did not for the most part ’integrate’, to use the Kendlers’ terminology. They did not press the button to get the marble and then (28) without further help to use the marble to get the toy. So the Kendlers concluded that they were incapable of deductive (29) . The mystery at first appears to deepen when we learn, from (30) psychologist, Michael Cole, and his colleagues, that adults in an African culture apparently cannot do the Kendlers’ task either. But it lessens, (31) when we learn that a task was devised which was (32) to the Kendlers’ one but much easier for the African males to handle. (33) the button-pressing machine, Cole used a locked box and two (34) colored match-boxes, one of which contained a key that would open the box. Notice that there are still two (35) segments--"open the right matchbox to get the key" and "use the key to open the box"--so the task seems formally to be (36) But psychologically it is quite different. Now the subject is dealing not with a strange machine but with familiar meaningful objects; and it is clear to him what he is meant to do. It then (37) that the difficulty of integration is greatly reduced. Recent work by Simon Hewson is of great interest here for it shows that, for young children, (38) , the difficulty lies not in the (39) processes which the task demands, but in certain perplexing features of the apparatus and the procedure. When these are changed in ways which do not at all affect the inferential nature of the problem, then five-year-old children solve the problem (40) college students did in the Kendlers’ own experiments.
The next time the men were taken up onto the deck, Kunta made a point of looking at the man behind him in line, the one who laid beside him to the left when they were below. He was a Serer tribesman much older than Kunta, arid his body, front and back, was creased with whip cuts, some of them so deep and festering that Kunta, felt badly for having wished sometimes that he might strike the man in the darkness for moaning so steadily in his pain. Staring back at Kunta, the Serer’s dark eyes were full of fury and defiance. A whip lashed out even as they stood looking at each other—this time at Kunta, spurring him to move ahead. Trying to roll away, Kunta was kicked heavily in his ribs. But somehow he and the gasping Wolof managed to stagger back up among the other men from their shelf who were shambling toward their dousing with buckets of seawater.A moment later, the stinging saltiness of it was burning in Kunta’s wounds, and his screams joined those of others over the sound of the drum and the wheezing thing that had again begun marking time for the chained men to jump and dance for the toubob. Kunta and the Wolof were so weak from their new beating that twice they stumbled, but whip blows and kicks sent them hopping clumsily up and down in their chains. So great was his fury that Kunta was barely aware of the women singing "Toubob fa!" And when he had finally been chained back down in his place in the dark hold, his heart throbbed with a lust to murder toubob.Every few days the eight naked toubob would again come into the stinking darkness and scrape their tubs full of the excrement that had accumulated on the shelves where the chained men lay. Kunta would lie still with his eyes staring balefully in hatred, following the bobbing orange lights, listening to the toubob cursing and sometimes slipping and tailing into the slickness underfoot—so plentiful now, because of the increasing looseness of the men’s bowels, that the filth had begun to drop off the edges of the shelves down into the aisle way.The last time they were on deck, Kunta had noticed a man limping on a badly infected leg. This time the man was kept up on deck when the rest were taken back below. A few days later, the women told the other prisoners in their singing that the man’s leg had been cut off and that one of the women had been brought to tend him, but the man had died that night and been thrown over the side. Starting then, when the toubob came to clean the shelves, they also dropped red-hot pieces of metal into pails of strong vinegar. The clouds of acrid steam left the hold smelling better, but soon it would again be overwhelmed by the choking stink. It was a smell that Kunta felt would never leave his lungs and skin.The steady murmuring that went on in the hold whenever the toubob were kept growing in volume and intensity as the men began to communicate better and better with one another. Words not understood were whispered from mouth to ear along the shelves until someone who knew more than one tongue would send back their meanings. In the process, all of the men along each shelf learned new words in tongues they had not spoken before. Sometimes men jerked upward, bumping their heads, in the double excitement of communicating with each other and the fact that it was being done without the toubob’s knowledge. Muttering among themselves for hours, the men developed a deepening sense of intrigue and of brotherhood. Though they were of different villages and tribes, the feeling grew that they were not from different peoples or places. Despite their intense pain and suffering, the Black men found a small measure of comfort in （）
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