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历史研究的方法论——1999年英译汉及详解【F1】While there are almost as many definitions of history as there are historians, modern practice most closely conforms to one that sees history as the attempt to recreate and explain the significant events of the past.Caught in the web of its own time and place, each generation of historians determines anew what is significant for it in the past. In this search the evidence found is always incomplete and scattered; it is also frequently partial or partisan. The irony of the historian"s craft is that its practitioners always know that their efforts are but contributions to an unending process.【F2】Interest in historical methods has arisen less through external challenge to the validity of history as an intellectual discipline and more from internal quarrels among historians themselves.While history once revered its affinity to literature and philosophy, the emerging social sciences seemed to afford greater opportunities for asking new questions and providing rewarding approaches to an understanding of the past. Social science methodologies had to be adapted to a discipline governed by the primacy of historical sources rather than the imperatives of the contemporary world.【F3】During this transfer, traditional historical methods were augmented by additional methodologies designed to interpret the new forms of evidence in the historical study.Methodology is a term that remains inherently ambiguous in the historical profession.【F4】There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various branches of historical inquiry.Historians, especially those so blinded by their research interests that they have been accused of "tunnel method", frequently fall victim to the"technicist fallacy". Also common in the natural sciences, the technicist fallacy mistakenly identifies the discipline as a whole with certain parts of its technical implementation.【F5】It applies equally to traditional historians who view history as only the external and internal criticism of sources, and to social science historians who equate their activity with specific techniques. 【F4】
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智力测验的初衷及价值——1992年英译汉及详解Intelligence at best is an assumptive construct—the meaning of the word has never been clear.【F1】There is more agreement on the kinds of behavior referred to by the term than there is on how to interpret or classify them.But it is generally agreed that a person of high intelligence is one who can grasp ideas readily, make distinctions, reason logically, and make use of verbal and mathematical symbols in solving problems. An intelligence test is a rough measure of a child"s capacity for learning, particularly for learning the kinds of things required in school. It does not measure character, social adjustment, physical endurance, manual skills, or artistic abilities. It is not supposed to—it was not designed for such purposes.【F2】To criticize it for such failure is roughly comparable to criticizing a thermometer for not measuring wind velocity.The other thing we have to notice is that the assessment of the intelligence of any subject is essentially a comparative affair.【F3】Now since the assessment of intelligence is a comparative matter we must be sure that the scale with which we are comparing our subjects provides a "valid" or "fair" comparison.It is here that some of the difficulties which interest us begin. Any test performed involves at least three factors: the intention to do one" s best, the knowledge required for understanding what you have to do, and the intellectual ability to do it.【F4】The first two must be equal for all who are being compared, if any comparison in terms of intelligence is to be made.In school populations in our culture these assumptions can be made fair and reasonable, and the value of intelligence testing has been proved thoroughly. Its value lies, of course, in its providing a satisfactory basis for prediction. No one is in the least interested in the marks a little child gets on his test; what we are interested in is whether we can conclude from his mark on the test that the child will do better or worse than other children of his age at tasks which we think require "general intelligence".【F5】On the whole such a conclusion can be drawn with a certain degree of confidence, but only if the child can be assumed to have had the same attitude towards the test as the others with whom he is being compared, and only if he was not punished by lack of relevant information which they possessed. 【F1】
以下对《中共中央关于全面深化改革若干重大问题的决定》中提出的完善金融市场体系的认识正确的是______。
人类学研究——2003年英译汉及详解Human beings in all times and places think about their world and wonder at their place in it. Humans are thoughtful and creative, possessed of insatiable curiosity.【F1】Furthermore, humans have the ability to modify the environment in which they live, thus subjecting all other life forms to their own peculiar ideas and fancies.Therefore, it is important to study humans in all their richness and diversity in a calm and systematic manner, with the hope that the knowledge resulting from such studies can lead humans to a more harmonious way of living with themselves and with all other life forms on this planet Earth."Anthropology" derives from the Greek words anthropos "human" and logos "the study of". By its very name, anthropology encompasses the study of all humankind.Anthropology is one of the social sciences.【F2】Social science is that branch of intellectual enquiry which seeks to study humans and their endeavors in the same reasoned, orderly, systematic, and dispassioned manner that natural scientists use for the study of natural phenomena.Social science disciplines include geography, economics, political science, psychology, and sociology. Each of these social sciences has a subfield or specialization which lies particularly close to anthropology.All the social sciences focus upon the study of humanity. Anthropology is a field-study oriented discipline which makes extensive use of the comparative method in analysis.【F3】The emphasis on data gathered first-hand, combined with a cross-cultural perspective brought to the analysis of cultures past and present, makes this study a unique and distinctly important social science.Anthropological analyses rest heavily upon the concept of culture. Sir Edward Tylor"s formulation of the concept of culture was one of the great intellectual achievements of 19th century science.【F4】Tylor defined culture as "... that complex whole which includes belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society".This insight, so profound in its simplicity, opened up an entirely new way of perceiving and understanding human life. Implicit within Tylor"s definition is the concept that culture is learned, shared, and patterned behavior.【F5】Thus, the anthropological concept of "culture", like the concept of "set" in mathematics, is an abstract concept which makes possible immense amounts of concrete research and understanding. 【F1】
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