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If an occupation census had been taken in the eleventh century it would probably have revealed that quite 90 percent of the people were county inhabitants who drew their livelihood from farming, herding, fishing or the forest. An air photograph taken at that time would have revealed spotted villages, linked together by unsurfaced roads and separated by expanses of forest or swamp. There were some towns, but few of them housed more than 10,000 persons. A second picture, taken in the mid-fourteenth century, would show that the villages had grown more numerous and also more widespread, for Europeans had pushed their frontier outward by settling new areas. There would be more people on the roads, rivers and seas, carrying food or raw materials to towns which had increased in number, size and importance. But a photograph taken about 1450 would reveal that little further expansion had taken place during the preceding hundred years. Any attempt to describe the countryside during those centuries is prevented by two difficulties. In the first place, we have to examine the greater part of Europe"s 3,750,000 square miles, and not merely the Mediterranean lands. In the second place, the inhabitants of that wide expanse refuse to fit into our standard pattern or to stand still. In 1450, most Europeans probably lived in villages, but some regions were so hilly, lacking in good soil, or heavily timbered that villages could not keep going, and settlement was that of solitary herdsmen or shepherds. Some areas had better access to market than others and were therefore more involved in commercial agriculture than in farming. Large landowners were more likely than small landlords to run their estates and especially their domains more systematically and also to keep those records from which we learn most of what we know about the subject. Some areas had never been quite feudalized; their farmers were more free from lordship and even from landlordship. Some regions had been recently settled, and their tenants had been offered liberal terms of tenure in order to lure them into the wilderness. Finally, there was a time element; the expansion and prosperity that characterized the period from the twelfth to the fifteenth century produced or maintained conditions which were unsuitable to the stormier days preceding or the lean ones following it. It is difficult to describe the countryside during the period under consideration, partly because the inhabitants______
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"There is a senseless notion that children grow up and leave home when they are 18, and the truth is far from that," says sociologist Lary Bumpass of the University of Wisconsin. Today, unexpected numbers of young adults are living with their parents. "There is a major shift in the middle class," declares sociologist Allasn Schnaiberg of Northwestern University, whose son, 19, moved back in after an absence of eight months. Analysts cite a variety of reasons for this return to the nest. The marriage age is rising, a condition that makes home and its pleasantness particularly attractive to young people. A high divorce rate and a declining remarriage rate are sending economically pressed and emotionally hurt survivors back to parental shelters. For some, the expense of an away-from-home college education has become so excessively great that many students now attend local schools. Even after graduation, young people find their wings clipped by skyrocketing housing costs. Living at home, says Knighton, a school teacher, continues to give her security and moral support. His mother agreed, "It"s ridiculous for the kids to pay all that money for rent. It makes sense for kids to stay at home." But sharing the family home requires adjustments for all. There are the hassles over bathrooms, telephones and privacy. Some families, however, manage the delicate balancing act. But for others, it proves too difficult. Michelle Del Turco, 24, has been home three times—and left three times. "What I considered a social drink, my dad considered an alcohol problem," she explains. "He never liked anyone I dated, so I either had to hide away or meet them at friends" houses." Just how long should adult children live with their parents before moving on Most psychologists feel lengthy homecomings are a mistake. Children, struggling to establish separate identities, can end up with "a sense of inadequacy, defeat and failure." And aging parents, who should be enjoying, some financial and personal freedom, find themselves stuck with responsibilities. Many agree that brief visits, however, can work beneficially. According to the text what is the best for both parents and children______
If an occupation census had been taken in the eleventh century it would probably have revealed that quite 90 percent of the people were county inhabitants who drew their livelihood from farming, herding, fishing or the forest. An air photograph taken at that time would have revealed spotted villages, linked together by unsurfaced roads and separated by expanses of forest or swamp. There were some towns, but few of them housed more than 10,000 persons. A second picture, taken in the mid-fourteenth century, would show that the villages had grown more numerous and also more widespread, for Europeans had pushed their frontier outward by settling new areas. There would be more people on the roads, rivers and seas, carrying food or raw materials to towns which had increased in number, size and importance. But a photograph taken about 1450 would reveal that little further expansion had taken place during the preceding hundred years. Any attempt to describe the countryside during those centuries is prevented by two difficulties. In the first place, we have to examine the greater part of Europe"s 3,750,000 square miles, and not merely the Mediterranean lands. In the second place, the inhabitants of that wide expanse refuse to fit into our standard pattern or to stand still. In 1450, most Europeans probably lived in villages, but some regions were so hilly, lacking in good soil, or heavily timbered that villages could not keep going, and settlement was that of solitary herdsmen or shepherds. Some areas had better access to market than others and were therefore more involved in commercial agriculture than in farming. Large landowners were more likely than small landlords to run their estates and especially their domains more systematically and also to keep those records from which we learn most of what we know about the subject. Some areas had never been quite feudalized; their farmers were more free from lordship and even from landlordship. Some regions had been recently settled, and their tenants had been offered liberal terms of tenure in order to lure them into the wilderness. Finally, there was a time element; the expansion and prosperity that characterized the period from the twelfth to the fifteenth century produced or maintained conditions which were unsuitable to the stormier days preceding or the lean ones following it. Expansion in Europe between 1350 and 1450______
"There is a senseless notion that children grow up and leave home when they are 18, and the truth is far from that," says sociologist Lary Bumpass of the University of Wisconsin. Today, unexpected numbers of young adults are living with their parents. "There is a major shift in the middle class," declares sociologist Allasn Schnaiberg of Northwestern University, whose son, 19, moved back in after an absence of eight months. Analysts cite a variety of reasons for this return to the nest. The marriage age is rising, a condition that makes home and its pleasantness particularly attractive to young people. A high divorce rate and a declining remarriage rate are sending economically pressed and emotionally hurt survivors back to parental shelters. For some, the expense of an away-from-home college education has become so excessively great that many students now attend local schools. Even after graduation, young people find their wings clipped by skyrocketing housing costs. Living at home, says Knighton, a school teacher, continues to give her security and moral support. His mother agreed, "It"s ridiculous for the kids to pay all that money for rent. It makes sense for kids to stay at home." But sharing the family home requires adjustments for all. There are the hassles over bathrooms, telephones and privacy. Some families, however, manage the delicate balancing act. But for others, it proves too difficult. Michelle Del Turco, 24, has been home three times—and left three times. "What I considered a social drink, my dad considered an alcohol problem," she explains. "He never liked anyone I dated, so I either had to hide away or meet them at friends" houses." Just how long should adult children live with their parents before moving on Most psychologists feel lengthy homecomings are a mistake. Children, struggling to establish separate identities, can end up with "a sense of inadequacy, defeat and failure." And aging parents, who should be enjoying, some financial and personal freedom, find themselves stuck with responsibilities. Many agree that brief visits, however, can work beneficially. One of the disadvantages of young adults returning to stay with their parents is that______
IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient, which is a measure of a person"s intelligence found by means of an intelligence test. Before marks gained in such a test can be useful as information about a person, they must be compared with some standard, or norm. It is not enough simply to know that a boy of thirteen has scored, say, ninety marks in a particular test. To know whether he is clever, average or dull, his marks must be compared with the average achieved by boys of thirteen in that test. In 1906 the psychologist, Alfred Binet, devised the standard in relation to which intelligence has since been assessed. He invented a variety of tests and put large numbers of children of different ages through them. He found at what age each test was passed by the average child. For instance, he found that the average child of seven could count backwards from 20 to 1 and the average child of three could repeat the sentence: We are going to have a good time in the country. Binet arranged the various tests in order of difficulty, and used them as a scale against which he could measure every individual. If, for example, a boy aged twelve could only do tests that were passed by the average boy of nine, Binet held that he was three years below average, and that he has a mental age of nine. The concept of mental age provided Binet, and through him, other psychologists, with the required standard, which enables him to state scores in intelligence tests in terms of a norm. At first, it was usual to express the result of a test by the difference between the "mental" and the "chronological" age. Then the boy in the example given would be "three years retarded". Soon, however, the "mental ratio" was introduced, that is to say, the ratio of the mental age to the chronological age. Thus a "boy of twelve with a mental age of nine has a mental ratio of 0.75. The mental age was replaced by the "intelligence quotient" or "ID". The IQ is the mental ratio multiplied by 100. For example, a boy of twelve with a mental age of nine has an IQ of 75. Clearly, since the mental age of average child is equal to the chronological age, the average IQ is 100. To judge a child"s standard, his marks in a test must be compared with marks gained by ______
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