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The word "civilization" was just coming into use in the 18th century, in French and in English, when conservative men of letters preferred to avoid it as a newfangled（）
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Most words are "lexical words", i.e. nouns signifying "things", the majority of which are abstract concepts rather than physical objects in the world; only "proper nouns" have specific and unique referents in the everyday Line world. The communicative function of a fully-functioning language requires the (5) scope of reference beyond the particularity of the individual instance. While each leaf, cloud or smile is different from all others, effective communication requires general categories or "universals". Anyone who has attempted to communicate with people who do not share their language will be familiar with the limitations of simply pointing to things, given that the vast majority of (10) lexical words in a language exist on a high level of abstraction and refer to classes of things such as "buildings" or to concepts like "construction".We lose any one-to-one correspondence of word and thing the moment we group instances into classes. Other than lexical words, language consists of "function words" or grammatical words, such as "only" and "under" which do (15) not refer to objects in the world at all, and many more kinds of signs other than simple nouns. The notion of words as labels for concepts assumes that ideas exist independently of words and that ideas are established in advance before theintroduction of linguistic structure. Clearly, language is not limited to naming things existing in the physical world, but includes non-existent objects and ideas (20) well. The nomenclaturist stance, in viewing words as labels for pre-existingideas and objects, attempts unsuccessfully to reduce language to the purely referential function of naming things. Things do not exist independently of the sign systems which we use; "reality" is created by the media which seem simply(25) to represent it. Language does not simply name pre-existing categories; categories do not exist in "the world" .e.g. "where are the boundaries of a cloud; when does a smile begin". Such an emphasis on reality as invariably perceptually seamless may be an exaggeration; our referential categories do seem to bear some relationship to certain features which seem to be inherently (30) salient. Within a language, many words may refer to "the same thing" but reflect different evaluations of it. For example, "one person’s ’hovel’ is another person’s ’home’" Meanwhile, the signified of a word is subject to historical change. In this sense, "reality" or "the world" is created by the language we use: this (35) argument insists on the primacy of the signifier. Even if we do not adopt the radical stance that "the real world" is a product of our sign systems, we must still acknowledge the lack of signifiers for many things in the empirical world and that there is no parallel correlation between most words and objects in the known world at all. Thus, all words are "abstractions", and there is no direct (40) correspondence between words and "things" in the world. It can be inferred from the passage that the author is LEAST likely to agree with which of the following（）
Previously, the sack-like rabbit appendix was thought to serve primarily as a reservoir for the bacteria involved in hindgut fermentation, an explanation that failed to account for the absence of an appendix in other animals with Line similar digestive systems or for its presence in humans. Microscopic research (5) revealed that the appendix contains a significant amount of lymphoid tissue,similar aggregates of which tissue occur in other areas of the gastrointestinal tract. These are involved, possibly, in the body’s ability to recognize foreign antigens in ingested material, but the evidence is inconclusive, to the extent that scientists have long discounted the human appendix as a "vestigial" organ. (10) However, a growing body of evidence suggests that the appendix, far from being a "vestigial organ", has a significant function as a part of the body’ s immune system. The appendix achieves its greatest development shortly after birth, when immune response is first developing, then regresses with age,when the immune response mediated by the appendix may relate to such (15) inflammatory conditions as ulcerative colitis, which in adults necessitates the organ’s surgical removal. Which of the following hypothetical discoveries, if made, would cast MOST doubt on the most recent conclusions regarding the function of the human appendix（）
A faux pas—whether in social circles or in private—can be（）, as it focuses us on our shortcomings in ways that would otherwise go unnoticed, and helps create self-awareness.
Previously, the sack-like rabbit appendix was thought to serve primarily as a reservoir for the bacteria involved in hindgut fermentation, an explanation that failed to account for the absence of an appendix in other animals with Line similar digestive systems or for its presence in humans. Microscopic research (5) revealed that the appendix contains a significant amount of lymphoid tissue,similar aggregates of which tissue occur in other areas of the gastrointestinal tract. These are involved, possibly, in the body’s ability to recognize foreign antigens in ingested material, but the evidence is inconclusive, to the extent that scientists have long discounted the human appendix as a "vestigial" organ. (10) However, a growing body of evidence suggests that the appendix, far from being a "vestigial organ", has a significant function as a part of the body’ s immune system. The appendix achieves its greatest development shortly after birth, when immune response is first developing, then regresses with age,when the immune response mediated by the appendix may relate to such (15) inflammatory conditions as ulcerative colitis, which in adults necessitates the organ’s surgical removal. The passage provides information in support of which of the following assertions（）
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