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Scientists are now studying a new field of research called psychoimmunology. It is based on the idea that people who are depressed or have a lot of stress are more likely to become sick. Researchers have recently found a connection between diseases and stressful situations. To test this theory, psychoimmunologists are trying to find a link between the brain and the immune system.The immune system in our bodies fights the bacteria and viruses which cause disease. Therefore, whether or not we are likely to get various diseases depends on how well our immune system works. Biologists used to think that the immune system was a separate, independent part of our bodies. Recently, however, they have found that our brain can affect our immune system. This discovery indicates that there may be a connection between emotional factors, such as stress or depression, and illness.Although many doctors in the past suspected a connection between emotional factors and disease, they had no proof. Scientists have only recently discovered how the brain and the immune system function. Before this, no one could see a link between them. As a result, medical science never seriously considered the idea that psychological factors could cause disease.Several recent studies showed a connection between stress and illness. For example, researchers went to an American military school to study the students. By studying the cadets’ blood, they found that many were infected with a virus which causes mononucleosis, a common glandular disease. Of the infected students, only 5 percent actually became ill. The sick cadets had a lot of academic pressure and wanted to achieve, but they were not very good students. In a similar study, researchers studied a group of student nurses. They focused on cold sores, which are also caused by a common virus. Many student nurses carried the virus in their blood, but few of these infected nurses actually developed cold sores. The nurses who did develop cold sores were the ones who described themselves as generally unhappy people.In addition to these results, which support their theory, researchers are also looking for proof that stress can damage the immune system. Researchers studied recently bereaved people, i. e. , people whose loved ones have just died, because they are more likely to become ill or die. By examining the immune system of recently bereaved people, the researchers made an important discovery. They examined some white blood cells, called lymphocytes, which are an important part of the immune system. They were not functioning properly. The fact that they were not working correctly indicates that severe psychological stress, such as a loved one’s death, may damage an important part of our immune system, namely, the lymphocytes.There is still no positive proof of a connection between the immune system and psychological factors. Researchers also say that the results of the studies on bereaved people could have a different explanation. For example, bereaved people often sleep and eat less than normal, or may drink alcohol or take medication. These factors can also affect the immune system. More research is needed to clearly establish the connection between the immune system and psychological factors. Our brain can probably affect our immune system.
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Scientists are now studying a new field of research called psychoimmunology. It is based on the idea that people who are depressed or have a lot of stress are more likely to become sick. Researchers have recently found a connection between diseases and stressful situations. To test this theory, psychoimmunologists are trying to find a link between the brain and the immune system.The immune system in our bodies fights the bacteria and viruses which cause disease. Therefore, whether or not we are likely to get various diseases depends on how well our immune system works. Biologists used to think that the immune system was a separate, independent part of our bodies. Recently, however, they have found that our brain can affect our immune system. This discovery indicates that there may be a connection between emotional factors, such as stress or depression, and illness.Although many doctors in the past suspected a connection between emotional factors and disease, they had no proof. Scientists have only recently discovered how the brain and the immune system function. Before this, no one could see a link between them. As a result, medical science never seriously considered the idea that psychological factors could cause disease.Several recent studies showed a connection between stress and illness. For example, researchers went to an American military school to study the students. By studying the cadets’ blood, they found that many were infected with a virus which causes mononucleosis, a common glandular disease. Of the infected students, only 5 percent actually became ill. The sick cadets had a lot of academic pressure and wanted to achieve, but they were not very good students. In a similar study, researchers studied a group of student nurses. They focused on cold sores, which are also caused by a common virus. Many student nurses carried the virus in their blood, but few of these infected nurses actually developed cold sores. The nurses who did develop cold sores were the ones who described themselves as generally unhappy people.In addition to these results, which support their theory, researchers are also looking for proof that stress can damage the immune system. Researchers studied recently bereaved people, i. e. , people whose loved ones have just died, because they are more likely to become ill or die. By examining the immune system of recently bereaved people, the researchers made an important discovery. They examined some white blood cells, called lymphocytes, which are an important part of the immune system. They were not functioning properly. The fact that they were not working correctly indicates that severe psychological stress, such as a loved one’s death, may damage an important part of our immune system, namely, the lymphocytes.There is still no positive proof of a connection between the immune system and psychological factors. Researchers also say that the results of the studies on bereaved people could have a different explanation. For example, bereaved people often sleep and eat less than normal, or may drink alcohol or take medication. These factors can also affect the immune system. More research is needed to clearly establish the connection between the immune system and psychological factors. People who have a lot of stress are more likely to become sick.
Questions 11 to I3 are based on the following talk on different superstitions and customs. You now have 15 seconds to read Questions 11 to 13.Molly, an English woman, is talking to Victor, who is Asian and they are discussing different superstitions and customs.Molly: There’s a black cat. That’s a lucky sign.Victor: I don’t think that as it just scratched me.Molly: Black cats are often used as good luck symbols in Europe.Victor: You have a lot of strange beliefs. I think I was told if you give someone a present with a sharp edge or point, like a knife or a brooch, you also have to give a coin.Molly: Yes, that’s right, then we say that the friendship will never be cut or broken.Victor: What about crossed knivesMolly: That’s supposed to be unlucky but we cross our fingers for good luck.Victor: The old people of my country believe in lots of things like that but I think it’s all a lot of rubbish. I can’t see how it can affect any thing.Molly: Well, many people say it’s bad luck to walk under a ladder and my uncle always laughed at that belief until one day he was walking under one and a pot of paint fell on his head. Now he’s changed his mind!Victor: Do you think that number 13 is unluckyMolly: Not really, but airlines must as there is never a seat mumber 13. They go from 12 to 14 direct.Victor: That’s only because they think that the passengers might be superstitious.Molly: My grandmother hates to break a mirror as she says that it brings seven years bad luck.Victor: Why Why not 5 or 10Molly: Don’t ask me!Victor: I have a friend who came here from Indonesia and when she first arrived she was insulted when I gave her something in my left hand.Molly: People who travel a lot have to be very careful how they behave in foreign countries as they might do or say something that is considered all right at home but dreadful in another place.Victor: That often happens, then people get the wrong idea about foreigners. It just needs a little understanding and common sense.Molly: My cousin was horrified at college when an Asian student belched in front of her, then spat on the ground.Victor: Spitting is a dirty habit but I don’t think that belching is wrong.Molly: It’s just a matter of opinion.Victor: That can be applied to most things in life.Molly: You’re right. Is Molly’s uncle a superstitious person().
Most people are right-handed and children usually have the same handedness as their parents. This suggests that genes are at work. But identical twins have identical genes, so genes cannot be the whole story. Cultural attitudes seem to have played an important part in the development of hand preferences. In the past, left-handers have suffered anything from teasing to flogging. Even today in some countries enforced right-handedness, particularly for writing and eating, is still common.To explain the observed patterns of handedness, researchers have devised what is known as a ’gene-culture coevolution’ model. The initial assumption of the model-drawn from observation of non-human primates and other mammals such as mice is that early on in human evolution, the genetic make-up of individuals inclined them to prefer one hand or the other, but that the population was equally divided between right- and left-handed people. Over time, according to the model, the interaction of genes and culture has produced a state where everyone has identical genes for handedness. This would happen if, for whatever reason, right-handers were more likely to survive and reproduce. The idea may not be that far-fetched. Many biologists believe that handedness is related to brain structure--say for example, early right-handers may have been better at language.The model predicts that today everyone has genes which confer a basic predisposition of 78% to be right-handed. How children actually turn out, however, can be influenced by whether their parents are dextral or sinistral. For example, children may mimic their parents. Or parents may influence the handedness of their children in the way that they hand them toys or food.The researchers reckon that a child with two right-handed parents has a 91% probability of being right-handed; a child with two left-handed parents has a probability of only 63% of being right-handed. But parental influence does not account for everything. Random events during a child’s development can also have a small effect on handedness. Even if identical twins have parents who are both dextral, factors such as their position in the womb may result in the twins not preferring the same hands.The model seems plausible. It accurately predicts the results of 13 studies of the handedness of twins as well as the proportion of left-handers found in the population at large (roughly 12%, a figure that seems to be quite stable). Asymmetries in early tools, and in the way in which prey were clubbed, suggest that hominids as early as the Australopithecines may have preferred their right hands. Whatever the origin of this dextrous preference, though, left-handers remain at large. Some people are just sinister. The author points out at the beginning that ().
Questions 14 to 16 are based on an introduction to a video "phone. You now have 15 seconds to read Questions 14 to 16.The telephone that you will use before long will be much more complicated than the one you use today. It will be a video phone, a phone that can transmit and receive pictures as well as sound. With a video phone you not only hear, but also see the person you are talking to. People will be able to hold business conferences by using video phones. Each person in the conference will sit in his or her own office and talk with others in the conference held in other cities.The telephone of the future will be more convenient to use than today’s telephones. You will be able dial almost any city in the world. You will also dial people almost any place in the world, even if they live in the country. Besides being able to dial great distances, you will have less trouble with busy signals. When you call someone and the line is busy, you can simply have the phone call you back. When the line is free, you will get your call and go ahead with your message.Television will bring change in many ways also. Screens will become larger. You can have one of wall size if you wish. It will be like having a movie theater in your own home. Most programs will probably reach you by overhead satellite. Some of these programs will be shown on all TV sets free of charge within a certain area. There will be other special programs that you may select if you wish to pay for them. There will be programs about certain subjects on video tapes that you may borrow from your public library. You will be able to hook these into your home TV set and enjoy them just as you would have a regular TV program. You will be able to watch your special program any time you choose. Which of the following statements about the telephone of the future is NOT true().
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