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[A] The Need for Science[B] The Methods of Science[C] The Challenge of Unsolved Problems[D] The Specific Features of the Laws of Science[E] The Steps in Establishing a Scientific Theory[F] The Rapid Increase of Scientific KnowledgeIt is the business of the scientist to accumulate knowledge about the universe and all that is in it. and to find. if he is able. common factors which underlie and account for the facts that he knows. He chooses, when he can, the method of the "controlled experiment".41. ______.In the course of his inquiries the scientist may find what he thinks is one common explanation for an increasing number of facts. The explanation, if it seems consistently to fit the various facts, is called a hypothesis. If a hypothesis continues to stand the test of numerous experiments and remains unshaken, it becomes a law.42. ______.The "laws" of science differ from the "laws" of a country in two ways. First, a scientific law is liable at any time to need modifying. This happens when a fact is discovered which seems to contradict what the "law" would lead one to expect. The "law" may, in fact. have to be abandoned altogether. Second. a scientific "law" says, "This is likely to be the explanation", or "This accounts for the facts as far as we know them". But the "law" of the country says, "You must..." or "You must not..." The scientific "law" has no moral force; it is not binding on human behavior nor approved or opposed by human conscience.43. ______.The evidence as to the vastness of the universe and the complexity of its arrangements continues to grow at an amazing rate. The gap between what we know and all that can be known seems not to diminish, but rather to increase with every new discovery. Fresh unexplored regions are forever opening out. The rapidity of the growth of scientific knowledge, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, is apt to give students and teachers the impression that no sooner is a problem stated than the answer is forthcoming. A more detailed study of the history of science corrects the impression that fundamental discoveries are made with dramatic suddenness. Even in our present age no less than fifty years separate the discovery of radioactivity from the explosion of the first atomic bomb. The teacher, giving his brief accounts of scientific discovery, is apt to forget the long periods of misunderstanding, of false hypotheses and general uncertainty, which almost invariably precede the clear statement of scientific truth.44. ______.The vast mass of information which scientists have gained has provided the answer to the fundamental questions which, through the centuries, have puzzled and sometimes tortured the human mind. There are many such questions. The study of parasites has provided evidence that organisms which could be self-supporting have become parasites, but hardly any light has been shed on the problem of why they should have done so. What enables an organism to respond to the poisonous secretions of harmful bacteria and organize its resources to defend its life45. ______.To raise the standard of living in any country, two things are required, scientific knowledge, and a population sufficiently educated to understand how to apply it. Without the latter, the expected benefits will not come.Notes: ado 麻烦，忙乱。be binding on 对......有约束力。parasite 寄生虫。shed light on 使某事物更清楚些。 secretion 分泌物。 48
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The invention of both labor-saving tools and tools of intelligence is rarely accidental. Instead, it is usually the product of human need; (1) is truly the mother of invention. People usually devise tools to (2) for natural deficiencies. For example, people invented weapons to defend (3) from physically superior (4) . But (5) is only one incentive for inventions. People also invent (6) tools to (7) certain established tasks more efficiently. For instance, people developed the bow and arrow from the (8) spear or javelin in order to shoot (9) and strike with greater strength.(10) civilizations developed, greater work efficiency came to be demanded, and (11) tools became more (12) . A tool would (13) a function until it proved (14) in meeting human needs, at which point an improvement would be made. One impetus for invention has always been the (15) for speed and high-quality results—provided they are achieved (16) reasonable costs. Stone pebbles were sufficient to account for small quantities of possessions, (17) they were not efficient enough for performing sophisticated mathematics. However, beads arranged systematically evolved into the abacus. The (18) of this tool can be (19) to the development of commerce in the East around 3000 B.C. and the abacus is known (20) by the ancient Babylonians, Egyptians, Chinese, etc.. 4（）
Motorways are, no doubt the safest roads in Britain. Mile (21) mile, vehicle for vehicle, you axe much (22) likely to be killed or seriously injured than on an ordinary road. On (23) hand, if you do have a serious accident on a motorway, fatalities are much more likely to (24) than in a comparable accident (25) on the roads.Motorways have no (26) bends, no roundabouts or traffic lights and (27) speeds are much greater than on other roads. Though the 70 mph limit is (28) in force, it is often treated with the contempt that most drivers have for the 30 mph limit applying in built up areas in Britain. Added to this is the fact that motorway drivers seem to like traveling in groups with perhaps (29) ten meters between each vehicle. The resulting horrific pile-ups (30) one vehicle stops for some reason—mechanical failure, driver error and so on—have become all (31) familiar through pictures in newspapers or on television. How (32) of these drivers realize that it takes a car about one hundred meters to brake to a stop (33) 70 mph Drivers also seem to think that motorway driving gives them complete protection from the changing weather. (34) wet the road, whatever the visibility in mist or fog, they (35) at ridiculous speeds oblivious of police warnings or speed restrictions (36) their journey comes to a conclusion.Perhaps one remedy (37) this motorway madness would be better driver education. At present, learner drivers are barred (38) motorways and are thus as far as this kind of driving is (39) , thrown in at the deep end. However, much more efficient policing is required, (40) it is the duty of the police not only to enforce the law but also to protect the general public from its own foolishness. 38（）
What made the new immigrants generally different from the "sojourners" In Chinesetowns, the traditionists try to maintain______.
Passage TwoMale chauvinism—the attitude that women are the passive and inferior servants of society and of men—sets women apart from the rest of the working class. Even when they do the same work as men, women are not considered workers in the same sense, with the need and right to work to provide for their families or to support themselves independently. They are expected to accept work at lower wages and without job security. Thus they can be used as a marginal or reserve labor force when profits depend on extra low costs or when men are needed for war.Women are not supposed to be independent, so they are not supposed to have any "right to work". This means, in effect, that although they do work, they are denied the right to organize and fight for better wages and conditions. Thus the role of women in the labor force undermines the struggles of male workers as well. The boss can break a union drive by threatening to hire lower paid women or blacks. In many cases, where women are organized, the union contract reinforces their inferior position, making women the least loyal and militant union members. (Standard Oil workers in San Francisco recently paid the price of male supremacy. Women at Standard Oil have the least chance for advancement and decent pay, and the union has done little to fight this. Not surprisingly, women formed the core of the back to work move that eventually broke the strike.)In general, because women are defined as docile, helpless, and inferior, they are forced into the most demeaning and mind rotting jobs—from scrubbing floors to filing cards—under the most oppressive conditions where they are treated like children or slaves. Their very position reinforces the idea, even among the women themselves, that they are fit for and should be satisfied with this kind of work.Apart from the direct, material exploitation of women, male supremacy acts in more subtle ways to undermine class consciousness. The tendency of male workers to think of themselves primarily as men (i.e., powerful) rather than as workers (i.e., members of an oppressed group) promotes a false sense of privilege and power, and an identification with the world of men, including the boss. The petty dictatorship which most men exercise over their wives and families enables them to vent their anger and frustration in a way which poses no challenge to the system. The role of the man in the family reinforces aggressive individualism, authoritarianism, and a hierarchical view of social relations—values which are fundamental to the perpetuation (不朽) of capitalism. In this system we are taught to relieve our fears and frustrations by brutalizing those weaker than we are: a man in uniform turns into a pig; the foreman intimidates the man on the line; the husband beats his wife, child, and dog. It can be inferred from the last paragraph that （）.
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