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1. Male and Female Pilots Cause Accidents Differently Male pilots flying general aviating(private) aircraft in the United States are more likely to crash due to inattention or flawed decision - making, while female pilots are more likely to crash from mishandling the aircraft. These are the results of a study by researchers at the Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health. The study identifies the differences between male and female pilots in terms of circumstances of the crash and the type of pilots error involved. "Crashes of general aviation aircraft account for 85 percent of all aviation deaths in the United States. The crash rate for male pilots, as for motor vehicle drivers, exceeds that of crashes of female pilots," explains Susan P. Baker. MPH, professor of health policy and management at the Bloomberg School of Public Health. "Because pilot youth and inexperience are established contributors to aviation crashes, we focused on only mature pilots, to determine the gender differences in the reasons for the crash. " The researchers extracted data for this study from a large research project on pilot aging and flight safety. The data were gathered from general aviation crashes of airplanes and helicopters between 1983 and 1997, involving 144 female pilots and 267 reale pilots aged 40 -63. Female pilots were matched with male pilots in a 1 : 2 ratio, by age, classes of medical and pilot certificates, state or area of crash, and year of crash. Then the circumstances of the crashes and the pilot error involved were categorized and coded without knowledge of pilot gender. The researchers found that loss of control on landing or takeoff was the most common circumstance for both sexes, leading to 59 percent of female pilots’ crashes and 36 percent of males. Experiencing mechanical failure, running out of fuel, and landing the plane with the landing gear up were among the factors more likely with males ,while stalling(失速) was more likely with females. The majority of the crashes - 95 percent for females and 88 percent for males - involved at least one type of pilot error. Mishandling aircraft kinetics was the most common error for both sexes, but was more common among females( accounting for 81 percent of the crashes)than males (accounting for 48 percent). Males, however, appeared more likely to be guilty of poor decision - making, risk - taking, and inattentiveness, examples of which include misjudging weather and visibility or flying an aircraft with a known defect. Females, though more likely to mishandle or lose control of the aircraft, were generally more careful than their male counterparts. The majority of the crashes are due to bad weather conditions.
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Some Things We Know about Language Many things about language are a mystery, and many will always remain so. But some things we do know. First, we know that all human beings have a language of some sort. There is no race of men anywhere on earth so backward that it has no language, no set of speech sounds by which the people communicate with one another. Furthermore, in historical times, there has never been a race of men without a language. Second, there is no such thing as a primitive language. There are many people whose cultures are undeveloped, who are, as we say, uncivilized, but the languages they speak are not primitive. In all known languages we can see complexities that must have been tens of thousands of years in developing. This has not always been well understood; indeed, the direct contrary has often been stated. Popular ideas of the language of the American Indians will illustrate. Many people have supposed that the Indians communicated in a very primitive system of noises. Study has proved this to be nonsense. There are, or were, hundreds of American Indian languages, and all of them turn out to be very complicated and very old. They are certainly different from the languages that most of us are familiar with, but they are no more primitive than English and Greek. A third thing we know about language is that all languages are perfectly adequate. That is, each one is a perfect means of expressing the culture of the people who speak the language. Finally, we know that language changes. It is natural and normal for language to change; the only languages which do not change are the dead ones. This is easy to understand if we look backward in time. Change goes on in all aspects of language. Grammatical features change as do speech sounds, and changes in vocabulary are sometimes very extensive and may occur very rapidly. Vocabulary is the least stable part of any language. The author has used American Indian language as an example to show that they are ______.
On the Net Friends Come and Go, Talking of...The young woman was visibly (51) and clearly wanted to get something off her chest."What’s up" I (52) "I’ve just been defriended," she said.Now "defriended" is a word (53) ! am not familiar. ! have been befriended (54) and befriended--many people since arriving in Beijing. But defriendedIt turns (55) this is a new word created by the Interact-savvy younger generation specifically in relation to the worldwide social networking phenomenon, Facebook.Those who join can invite friends to become members of the site, (56) . They can then share photographs, "chat", swap messages and observations and perform a host of other mutually accessible applications.I’ve seen some people’s sites (57) hundreds of friends, all moments away down a fiber optic cable, providing they are logged on to their computers or hooked up to a high-spec cell phone,It creates the possibility of "befriending" anyone in the world who has online access. Currently, Facebook has 150 million users. That means there’s a lot of "friends" out there.The (58) is that you can be "defriended"--you can be denied access to the Face, book site someone who had previously invited to be his or her friend. And you can do it without the potential for instant recrimination.Where once, in the school playground on child might have petulantly shouted (59) another, "I’m not going to be your fried any more" the same hurt and loss of face can be performed remotely with the chick of a button.A (60) aspect of "defriending" is that, unlike with other applications such as the "what are you thinking about" posting a digital depository of the often dire, (61) , dull and desperate, no message is sent out alerting you or your contacts about the change m status. You only find out you have (62) when you try to visit a "friend’s" site, and you find you can no longer get in the delay of the discovery is all too often doubly hurtful.Just as bombs are dispatched impersonally (63) an unseen enemy in modem warfare, (64) relationships are blown out of the window with the same callous disregard, without the risk of any face-to-face comeback. One second you arc there, (65) you are deleted. 51().
It is the sense of ______that we first acquire and develop, and it tends to shape ______all the way.
Driven to Distraction Joe Coyne slides into the driver’s seat, starts up the car and heads to town. The empty stretch of interstate gives way to urban congestion, and Coyne hits the brakes as a pedestrian suddenly crosses the street in front of him. But even if he hadn’t stopped in time, the woman would have been safe. She isn’t real. Neither is the town. And Coyne isn’t really driving. Coyne is demonstrating a computerized driving simulator that is helping researchers at Old Dominion University (ODU) examine how in-vehicle guidance systems affect the person behind the wheel. The researchers want to know if such systems, which give audible or written directions, are too distracting — or whether any distractions are offset by the benefits drivers get from having help finding their way in unfamiliar locations. "We’re looking at the performance and mental workload of drivers," said Caryl Baldwin, the assistant psychology professor leading the research, which involves measuring drivers’ reaction time and brain activity as they respond to auditory and visual Cues. The researchers just completed a study of the mental workload involved in driving through different kinds of environments and heavy vs. light traffic. Preliminary results show that as people "get into more challenging driving situations, they don’t have any extra mental energy to respond to something else in the environment," Baldwin said. But the tradeoffs could be worth it, she said. The next step is to test different ways of giving drivers navigational information and how those methods change the drivers’ mental workload. "Is it best if they see a picture...that shows their position, a map kind of display" Baldwin said. "Is it best if they hear it" Navigational systems now on the market give point-by-point directions that follow a prescribed route. "They’re very unforgiving," Baldwin said. "If you miss a turn, they can almost seem to get angry." That style of directions also can be frustrating for people who prefer more general instructions. But such broad directions can confuse drivers who prefer route directions, Baldwin said. Perhaps manufacturers should allow drivers to choose the style of directions they want, or modify systems to present some information in a way that makes sense10 for people who prefer the survey style, she said. Interestingly, other research has shown that about 60 percent of men prefer the survey style, while 60 percent women prefer the route style, Baldwin said. This explains the classic little thing of why men don’t like to stop and ask for directions and women do, Baldwin added. Which statement is true of the description in the first two paragraphs
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