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Directions: Read the following passage. For each numbered blank there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the best one and mark your answers on ANSWER SHEET 1. One of the most eminent of psychologists, Clark Hull, claimed that the essence of reasoning lies in the putting together of two ’behavior segments’ in some novel way, never actually performed before, so as to reach a goal. Two followers of Clark Hull, Howard and Tracey Kendler, (21) a test for children that was explicitly based on Clark Hull’s principles. The children were given the (22) of learning to operate a machine so as to get a toy. In order to succeed they had to go through a two-stage (23) . The children were trained on each stage (24) . The stages consisted merely of pressing the correct one of two buttons to get a marble; and of (25) the marble into a small hole to release the toy. The Kendlers found that the children could learn the separate bits readily enough. (26) the task of getting a marble by pressing the button they could get the marble; given the task of getting a toy when a marble was handed to them, they could use the marble. (All they had to do was put it in a hole.) (27) they did not for the most part ’integrate’, to use the Kendlers’ terminology. They did not press the button to get the marble and then (28) without further help to use the marble to get the toy. So the Kendlers concluded that they were incapable of deductive (29) . The mystery at first appears to deepen when we learn, from (30) psychologist, Michael Cole, and his colleagues, that adults in an African culture apparently cannot do the Kendlers’ task either. But it lessens, (31) when we learn that a task was devised which was (32) to the Kendlers’ one but much easier for the African males to handle. (33) the button-pressing machine, Cole used a locked box and two (34) colored match-boxes, one of which contained a key that would open the box. Notice that there are still two (35) segments--"open the right matchbox to get the key" and "use the key to open the box"--so the task seems formally to be (36) But psychologically it is quite different. Now the subject is dealing not with a strange machine but with familiar meaningful objects; and it is clear to him what he is meant to do. It then (37) that the difficulty of integration is greatly reduced. Recent work by Simon Hewson is of great interest here for it shows that, for young children, (38) , the difficulty lies not in the (39) processes which the task demands, but in certain perplexing features of the apparatus and the procedure. When these are changed in ways which do not at all affect the inferential nature of the problem, then five-year-old children solve the problem (40) college students did in the Kendlers’ own experiments.
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Motorola Inc. , the world’s second-largest mobile phone maker, will begin selling all of the technology needed to build a basic mobile phone to outside manufacturers, in a key change of strategy. The inventor of the cell phone, which has been troubled by missteps compounded by a recent industry slump in sales, is trying to become a neutral provider of mobile technology to rivals, with an eye toward fostering a much larger market than it could create itself. The Chicago area-based company, considered to have the widest range of technologies needed to build a phone, said it planned to make available chips, a design layout for the computer board, software, development tools and testing tools. Motorola has previously supplied mobile phone manufacturers with a couple of its chips, but this is the first time the company will offer its entire line of chips as well as a detailed blueprint. Mobile phones contain a variety of chips and components to control power, sound and amplification. Analysts said they liked the new strategy but were cautious about whether Motorola’s mobile phone competitors would want to buy the technology from a rival.The company, long known for its top-notch (等级) engineering culture, is hoping to profit from its mobile phone technology now that the basic technology to build a mobile phone has largely become a commodity. Motorola said it will begin offering the technology based on the next-generation GPRS (Global Packet Radio Service) standard because most mobile phone makers already have technology in place for current digital phones. GPRS offers faster access to data through "always on" network connections, and customers are charged only for the information they retrieve, rather than the length of download.Burgess said the new business will not conflict with Motorola’s own mobile phone business because the latter will remain competitive by offering advanced features and designs. Motorola’s phones have been criticized as being too complicated and expensive to manufacture, but Burgess said Motorola will simplify the technology in the phones by a third. In addition to basic technology, Burgess said, Motorola would also offer additional features such as Blueteeth, a technology that allows wireless communications at a short distance, and Global Positioning System, which tracks the user’s whereabouts, and MP3 audio capability. The technology supplied by Motorola is based on （）
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Passage Four Science is an enterprise concerned with gaining information about causality, or the relationship between cause and effect. A simple example of a cause is the movement of a paddle as it strikes a ping-pong ball; the effect is the movement of the ball through the air. In psychology and other sciences, the word "cause" is often replaced by the term "independent variable". This term implies that the experimenter is often "free" to vary the independent variable as he or she desires (for example, the experimenter can control the speed of the paddle as it strikes the ball). The term "dependent variable" replaces the word "effect", and this term is used because the effect depends on some characteristic of the independent variable (the flight of the ball depends on the speed of the paddle). The conventions of science demand that both the independent and dependent variables be observable events, as is the case in the ping-pong example. In the case of biorhythm theory, the independent variable is the number of days that have elapsed between a person’s date of birth and some test day. The dependent variable is the person’s level of performance on some specified task on the test day. Notice that although the experimenter is not free to choose a birthday for a given individual, persons with different dates of birth can be tested on the same day, or a single subject can be tested on several different days. In order to predict the relationship between independent and dependent variables, many scientific theories make use of what are called intervening variables. Intervening variables are purely theoretical concepts that cannot be observed directly. To predict the flight of a ping-pong ball, Newtonian physics relies on a number of intervening variables, including force, mass, air resistance, and gravity. You can probably anticipate that the intervening variables of biorhythm theory are the three bodily cycles with their specified time periods. It should be emphasized that not all psychological theories include intervening variables, and some psychologists object to their use precisely because they are not directly observable. The final major component of a scientific theory is its syntax, or the rules and definitions that state how the independent and dependent variables are to be measured, and that specify the relationships among independent variables, intervening variables, and dependent variables. It is the syntax of biorhythm theory that describes how to use a person’s birthday to calculate the current status of the three cycles. The syntax also relates the cycles to the dependent variable, performance, by stating that positive cycles should cause high levels of performance whereas low or critical cycles should cause low performance levels. To summarize, the components of a scientific theory can be divided into four major categories: independent variables, dependent variables, intervening variables, and syntax. Based on the passage, causality may have the meaning that ______.
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