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Passage OneQuestions 52 to 56 are based on the following passage. There is a phenomena ill the present. The average number of authors on scientific papers is skyrocketing. What is the main reason for it That’s partly because labs are bigger, problems are more complicated, and more different subspecialties are needed. But it’s also because US government agencies like the National Institutes of Health (NIH) have started to promote "team science". As physics developed in the post-World War Ⅱ era, federal funds built expensive national facilities, and these served as surfaces on which collaborations could crystallize naturally. Yet multiple authorship--however good it may be in other ways presents for journals and for the institutions in which these authors work. For the journals, long lists of authors are hard to deal with in themselves. But those long lists give rise to more serious questions when something goes wrong with the paper. If there is research misconduct, should tile liability be joint and several, accruing to all authors If not, then how should it be allocated among them If there is an honest mistake in one part of the work but not in others, how should an evaluator aim his or her review Various practical or impractical suggestions have emerged during the long-standing debate on this issue. One is that each author should provide, and the journal should then publish, an account of that author’s particular contribution to the work. But a different view of the problem, and perhaps of the solution, comes as we get to university committee on appointments and promotions, which is where the authorship rubber really meets the road. Half a lifetime of involvement with this process has taught me how much authorship matters. I have watched committees attempting to decode sequences of names, agonize over whether a much cited paper was really the candidate’s work or a coauthor’s, and send back recommendations asking for more specificity about the division of responsibility. Problems of this kind change the argument, supporting the case for asking authors to define their own roles. After all, if quality judgments about individuals are to be made on the basis of their personal contributions, then the judges better know what they did. But if questions arise about the validity of the work as a whole, whether as challenges to its conduct or as evaluations of its influence in the field, a team is a team, and the members should share the credit or the blame. Whether multiple authors of a paper should be taken collectively or individually depends on ______.
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Madagascar There are at least 8 million unique species of life on the planet, if net far more, and you could be forgiven for believing that all of them can be found in Andasibe. Walking through this rain forest in Madagascar is like stepping into the library of life. Sunlight seeps through the silky fringes of the Ravenea louvelii, an endangered palm (棕榈树) found, like so much else on this African island, nowhere else. Madagascar which separated from India 80 million to 100 million years ago before eventually settling off the southeastern coast of Africa, is in many ways an Earth apart. All that time in geographic isolation made Madagascar a Darwinian playground, its animals and plants evolving into forms utterly original. Some 90% of the island’s plants and about 70% of its animals arc endemic, meaning that they arc found only in Madagascar. But what makes life on the island unique also makes it uniquely vuhnerable, which means if we lose these animals on Madagascar, they’re gone forever. That loss seems likelier than ever because the animals are under threat as never before. Once lushly forested, Madagascar has seen more than 80% of its original vegetation cut down or burned since humans arrived at least 1500 years ago, fragmenting habitats and leaving animals effectively homeless. Unchecked hunting wiped out a number of large species, and today mining, logging and energy exploration threaten those that remain. It has an area the size of New Jersey in Madagascar that is still under forest, and all this incredible diversity is crammed into it. Madagascar is a conservation hot spot a term for a region that is very biodiverse and particularly threatened--and while that makes the island special, it is hardly alone. Conservationists estimate that extinctions worldwide are occurring at a pace that is up to 1 000 times as great as history’s background rate before human beings began scattering. Worse, that die-off could be accelerating. Price of Extinction There have been five extinction waves in the planet’s history—including the Permian (二叠纪的) extinction 250 million years ago, when an estimated 70% of all terrestrial animals and 96 % of all marine creatures vanished, and, most recently, the Cretaceous (白垩纪的) event 65 million ),ears ago, which ended the reign of the dinosaurs. Though scientists have directly assessed the viability of fewer than 3% of the world’s described species, the sample polling of animal populations so far suggests that we may have entered what will be the planet’s sixth great extinction wave. And this time the cause isn’t an unsteady planet or volcanoes. It’s us. Through our growing numbers, our thirst for natural resources and, most of all, climate change-- which, by one reckoning, could help carry off 20% to 30% of all species before the end of the century-- we’re shaping an Earth that will be biologically exhausted. A 2008 assessment by the: International Union for Conservation of Nature found that nearly 1 in 4 mammals worldwide were at risk for extinction, including endangered species. Over fishing and acidification of the oceans are threatening marine species as diverse as the corals. Scary for conservationists, yes. but the question arises: Why should it matter to the rest of us After all, nearly all the species that were ever alive in the past are gone today. Evolution demands extinction. When we’re using the term extinction to talk about the fate of the US auto industry, does it really matter if we lose species like the Yangtze River dolphin and the golden toad, all of which have effectively disappeared in recent years What docs the loss of a few species among millions matterFor one thing, we’re animals too, dependent on this planet like every other form of life. The more species living in an ecosystem, the healthier and more productive it is, which matters for us--a recent study by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) estimates the economic value of the Amazon rain forest’s ecosystem services to be up to $100 per hectare (about 2.5 acres). When we pollute and deforest and make a mess of the ecological web, we’re taking out mortgages on the Earth that we can’t pay back--and those loans will come due. Then there are the undiscovered organisms and animals that could serve as the basis of needed medicines as the original ingredients of aspirin were derived from the herb meadowsweet unless we unwittingly destroy them first. Forests razed can grow back., polluted air and water can be cleaned, but extinction is forever. And we’re not talking about losing just a few species. In fact, conservationists quietly acknowledge that we’ve entered an age of triage (挑选), when we might have to decide which species can truly be saved. The worst-case plot of habitat loss and climate change and that’s the pathway we seem to be on-show the planet losing hundreds of thousands to millions of species, many of which we haven’t even discovered yet. The result could be a virtual extinction of much of the animal world and an irreversible poverty of our planet. Hmnans would survive, but we would have doomed ourselves to what naturalist E.O. ’Wilson calls the Eremozoic Era the Age of Loneliness. So if you care about tigers and rhinos, if you believe Earth is more than just a home for 6.7 billion human beings and counting, then you should be scared. But fear shouldn’t leave us paralyzed. Environmental groups worldwide are responding with new methods to new threats to wildlife. In hot spots like Madagascar and Brazil. conservationists are working with locals on the ground, ensuring that the protection of endangered species is tied to the welfare of the people who live closest to them. A strategy known as avoided deforestation goes further, incentivizing environmental protection by putting a price on the carbon locked in rain forests and allowing countries to trade credits in an international market, provided that the carbon stays in the trees and is not cut or burned. And as global warming forces animals to migrate in order to escape changing climates, conservationists are looking to create protected corridors that would give the species room to roam. It’s uncertain that any of this will stop the sixth extinction wave, let alone preserve the biodiversity we still enjoy, but we have no, choice but to try. We have a window of opportunity, but it’s slamming shut. To Save the Species, Save the People Madagascar, which is called the "hottest of the hot spots", is where all the new strategies can be road tested. In 2003, after decades when conservation was barely on the government’s agenda, then-President Marc Ravalomanana announced that the government would triple Madagascar’s protected areas over the following five years. That decision helped under funded parks like Andasibe’s, which protects some of the last untouched forest on the is land. "You can’t save a species without saving the habitat where it lives," says WWF’s Roberts. Do that right, and you can even turn a profit in the process. In Madagascar, half the revenues from national parks are meant to go leo the surrounding communities. The reserves in turn help sustain an industry for local guides. In a country as poor as Madagascar, where 61% of the people live on less than $1 a day, it makes sense to give locals an economic stake in preserving wildlife rather than destroying it. The corridors created by CI’s Andasibe tree-planting program show how a small tweak can reduce the species killing effects of climate change--but also how longer-term fixes are needed. Fragmented habitats are problematic because many endangered species wind up trapped in green oases surrounded by degraded land. As global warming changes the climate, species will try to migrate, often right into the path of development and extinction. What good is a nature reserve--fought for, paid for and protected--if global warming renders it unlivable Climate change could undermine the conservation work of whole generations. It turns out you can’t save species without saving the sky. That will mean reducing carbon emissions as fast as possible. In the US, the CBD has made an art out of using the Endangered Species Act, which mandates that the government prevent the extinction of listed species, to force Washington to act on global warming. The CBD’s Siegel led a successful campaign to get the Bush Administration to list the polar bear as threatened by climate change, and we expect more species to follow. What made a lot of large animals disappear in the past
Passage ThreeQuestions 32 to 35 are based on the passage you have just heard.
Passage OneQuestions 26 to 28 are based on the passage you have just heard.
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